Transcript theory of evolution

PERRY POPS
BIOLOGYYYYYY
YYYYYY
2.0
It’s back!
EVOLUTION
A development that involves the series of gradual
adaptations by which organisms have become more
complicated over many generations
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
• Theory of Use & Disuse
• Theory of Acquired Traits (acquired traits can be
acquired by the following generation)
• Environmental influences can affect phenotype
THEORY OF EVOLUTION
• Founded by Charles Darwin & Alfred Russel Wallace
• Concepts:
– Reproduction: organisms reproduce more than what’s
enough to replace them (but population = fairly constant)
– Competition: organisms must compete for scarce
resources (Struggle for Existence)
– Variation: within populations = variety of characteristics 
others will be able to survive more effectively (Survival of
the Fittest)
– Adaptation: organisms adapt in order to survive and
reproduce (Natural Selection)
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• Fossils: preserved remains; show gradual changes in evolution
• Vestigial structures: remains of used-to-be useful organs
(appendix, coccyx/tailbone)
• Geographical distribution: organisms with similar
characteristics but belong to diff. continents = common
ancestors
• Comparative biochemistry: proteins/genetic sequences as
basis for evolutionary relationships
• Comparative Anatomy Structure: Homologous – same design
w/ diff. functions; Analogous – diff. designs w/ same functions
• Comparative embryology: similarities in the development of
offspring (reptiles – birds – mammals)
TAXONOMY
TAXONOMY: ANIMAL KINGDOM
Vertebrates
(with backbones)
Invertebrates
(without backbones)
Pisces (fish)
Coelenterates (jellyfish, hydra)
Amphibians (frogs)
Reptiles (snakes, turtles)
Aves (birds)
Mammals
Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Nematodes (roundworms)
Mollusks (slugs, snails)
Echinoderms (starfish)
Arthropods
Crustaceans (crabs, shrimps)
Myriapods (centipedes)
Insects
Arachnids (spiders, scorpions)
ECOLOGY
• Study of the relationship of plants and animals to
their physical and biological environment
• Biosphere
– Thin mantle of life covering the earth
• Biomes
– Broad units of vegetation influenced by latitude, elevation,
moisture and temperature regimes
KINDS OF BIOMES
BIOME
MOISTURE
TEMPERATURE
VEGETATION
ANIMALS
Arctic Tundra
Dry/wet seasons
Cold all year
round
Shrubs, grasses,
lichens, mosses
Birds, insects,
mammals
Deciduous Forest
Low, distributed
throughout the
year
Warm summers,
cold winters
Trees, shrubs,
herbs, lichens,
mosses
Birds, insects,
mammals
Desert
Sporadic, highly
localized
Great daily range
(extremes)
Trees, shrubs,
succulents
small mammals,
birds, reptiles
Taiga
Moderate, varies
throughout year
Cold winters,
cool summers
Evergreen,
tamarack
Birds, mammals
Tropical
Savannah
Wet/dry seaons
hot
Trees, vines,
stranglers, fungi
Small mammals,
birds, insects
Tropical
Rainforest
Wet/short dry
season
hot
Trees, vines,
stranglers, fungi
Small mammals ,
birds, insects
Marine
Environment
The open ocean, litoral regions, benthic regions, rocky shores, sandy shores,
estuaries, associated tidal marshes
ECOSYSTEM
• Locale or habitat as an integrated whole  factors: biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living)
• Habitat – where biotic and abiotic factors can be found; have
their own animals and plants
– Community – all living things in the habitat
– Population – members of the same species in the same
habitat
– Niche – the role of an organism in a habitat
• Members of a community depend on:
– Energy: (in the form of) food that flows from the
community’ originally from the sun
– Nutrients: recycled within a community and an ecosystem
FEEDING TYPES
• Autotrophs – make their own food; the source of energy
(producers)
• Heterotrophs – cannot make their own food (consumers)
– Herbivores: primary consumers that eat plants
– Carnivores: secondary consumers that eat primary
consumers
• Omnivores – can eat plants and meat
– Scavengers – feed on dead organisms (vultures, hyenas)
• Oligotrophs – producers/synthesize their own food in extreme
conditions, when food is scarce  act as consumers under
normal conditions (conditional autotrophs/heterotrophs)
• Decomposers – recycle nutrients from dead organisms (fungi
and bacteria)
FOOD CHAIN
The passing on of energy/ nutrients that are recycled within an
ecosystem
(Food webs – interconnected food chains)
HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
• Pollution from fossil fuels: burning of fuels by
industry, power stations, and vehicles
• Deforestation: trees can be harvested and replaced
BUT  rate of harvesting is much greater than the
rate of replacing
• Toxin accumulation: mainly due to nonspecific/specific herbicides and insecticides
COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS
• Competition: organisms compete for shared resources with
short supply; more successful organisms survive
• Predation: consumption of one organism, plant/animal, by
the other
• Parasitism: two organisms living together; one benefits at the
expense of the other
• Co-evolution: evolution of one species depends on part of
another’s evolution
• Succession and climax communities: gradual changes in
vegetation over time
PLANTS
• PLANT LIFE CYCLE
– Annual
• any plant that germinates, grows, flowers, sets seed,
and dies within one year
– Biennial
• plants that flower, set seed, and die in their second
year
– Perennial
• plants that flower and set seed for two or more years
• PLANT CELL TYPES
– Parenchyma
• cell walls are uniformly thin and can either be meristematic
(capable of cell division) or permanent.
• carry out physiological functions such as photosynthesis,
storage and secretion, and wound healing
– Collenchyma
• made up of unevenly thickened primary cell walls
• functions as support tissue in young, growing parts of plants
(strength and mechanical support)
– Sclerenchyma
• cells have secondary cell walls containing lignin
• important for strength and support
• PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
– Ground
• fundamental tissue system in plants
• consists of parenchyma, collenchyma, & sclerenchyma tissues
– Dermal
• consists of the epidermis
• some parts contain stomata (openings which gases are
exchanged with the atmosphere) or cuticle (to prevent water
loss)
• epidermis is later on converted to peridermis (made up of
dead, waterproofed cells, mainly cork tissue)
– Vascular
• xylem: conduction of water and dissolved nutrients
– conducting cells: tracheid and vessel elements
• phloem: conduction of food
– primary cells: sieve elements
• TROPISMS
– growth responses of plants to obtain
enough water, minerals, and sunlight
– Phototropism
• with respect to a light source
• plant naturally grows towards the brightest
light source
– Geotropism
• with respect to gravity
– Hydrotropism
• with respect to water
• Stems
– usually above the ground
– increases in length
through apical meristem
at the stem tip
• Leaves
– functions in
photosynthesis, stores
food and water
– sites of transpiration and
provides structural
support for the plant
• Flowers
– reproductive organs
of certain plants
• Roots
– anchors plant to its
substrate and absorbs
water and minerals
– types: fibrous
(monocot) and tap
(dicot) roots
BODY CAVITIES
FRONT
(VENTRAL/ANTENOR)
BACK
(DORSAL/POSTERIOR)
Pericardial Cavity
houses the heart
(that is located in
the thorax/chest)
Cranial Cavity
Protects the brain
Thoraic Cavity
Between the neck
and the abdomen;
contains the lungs
and the heart
Spinal Cavity
Protects the spinal
cord
Abdominopelvic
Cavity
Houses the
digestive,
excretory &
reproductive
systems
BODY TISSUES
A. Epithelial – protects the body from injuries/infection: skin
B. Connective – support and hold parts of the body together:
A. Fibrous, elastic, blood, lymph
B. tendon = bone to muscle, ligament = bone to bone
C. Muscular – contrast and relax:
A. striated (joined together),
B. smooth (involuntary, internal organs),
C. cardiac (involuntary, heart)
D. Nervous – transfer information: neurons  ganglia (nerve
nuclei)
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Allows manipulation of the environment, movement, facial
expression, posture; produces heat (= 620 muscles!)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Protects/supports body organs; framework for muscles (= movement);
• bone marrows = blood production; stores minerals (=206 bones!)
• Joint – connection between bones
• Cartilage – between bones (shock absorber)
• Ligaments – holds bone to bone
• Tendons – muscle to bone
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Glands secrete hormones  regulate processes
GLAND
HORMONE
FUNCTION
Pituitary
(“Master Gland”)
Oxytocin
Smooth muscle control, labor, milk
Vasopressin/ADH
Kidney/urine control
Pineal
Melatonin
Regulates wake/sleep patterns
Thyroxine
Increases metabolism
Calcitonin
Controls calcium intake
Gluccorticoids
Increase blood sugar
Epinephrine &
Norepinephrine
“fight or flight” hormone/adrenalin
Thyroid
Adrenal
(Suprarenal)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
GLAND
HORMONE
FUNCTION
Insulin
Lowers blood sugar
Glucagon
Releases glucose from the liver
Parathyroid
hormone
Increase calcium levels
Pancreas
Parathyroid
Estrogen
Ovaries
Secondary sex characteristics for females
Progesterone
Testes
Testosterone
Secondary sex characteristics for males
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• Blood vessels
– transports blood which carries O2, CO2, nutrients,
wastes, etc.
– veins: carries blood towards the heart
– arteries: carries blood away from the heart
– capillaries: exchange vessels
• Blood
– complex substance which carries substances through
cells
• Heart
– acts as a pump which moves the blood through a
network of tubes called blood vessels
• Pulmonary
Circulation
– carries
deoxygenated
blood away from
the heart and to
the lungs, and
returns oxygenated
blood back to the
heart
• Systemic Circulation
– carries oxygenated
blood away from
the heart to the
body, and returns
deoxygenated
blood back to the
heart
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• breaks food down into absorbable units
that enter the blood for distribution of
cells
• indigestible foodstuff are eliminated as
feces
• PATHWAY OF FOOD
– mouth
• mechanical digestion: mastication
– salivary glands
• will turn into bolus
– pharynx
• passage of food and air
• epiglottis closes over the trachea
– esophagus
– stomach
• through peristalsis
– small intestine
– large intestine
– rectum
• waste materials
• OTHER PARTS
– liver
• functions in
metabolism
• produces bile
– gallbladder
• fat digestion
• stores bile
– pancreas
• secretes
pancreatic juice
and insulin
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
• eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body
• regulates water, electrolyte, and acidbase balance of the body
• detoxification of blood
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
• Skin
– sudiferous (sweat glands)
– sebaceous (oil glands)
– helps remove the additional wastes produced by
these glands
• Liver
– detoxifies and breaks down chemicals, poisons,
and other toxins
• Urinary System
– Kidney
•
•
•
•
Nephron – functional unit of a kidney; acts as filters
Glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule
Loops of Henle
– Ureter
• propels urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
– Urethra
• connects urinary bladder to the outside of the body
– Bladder
• collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal
by urination
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
• the gaseous exchange occur through the
walls of the air sacs of the lungs
• Respiration
– carried on by the expansion and contraction of the
lungs
• Breathing
– process which delivers oxygen to the body’s cells
and removes carbon dioxide produced from
cellular respiration
AIR PATHWAY
•
•
•
•
•
•
mouth or nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchus
lungs
– bronchiole
– alveoli
FEMALE REPR
DUCTIVE SYSTEM
**overall function: production of offspring
• ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; mammary glands produce
milk
MALE REPR
DUCTIVE SYSTEM
• testes produce sperm cells and male sex
hormones
• ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable
sperm to the female reproductive tract
• uterus
PARTS
– passes the male’s sperm through to the fallopian tubes
– hosts developing fetus
– also known as the womb
• ovaries
– produces the egg cells
• vagina
– also known as the birth canal
• cervix
• fallopian tubes/oviducts
• reproductive tract
PARTS
• penis
– male copulatory organ
• testicles
– produces semen and sperm cells
– epididymis: maturation and storage for sperm
– seminiferous tubules: where sperm cells are produced
• scrotum
– holds and protects the testes
• vas deferens
– sperm duct
PARTS
• accessory glands
– provide fluids that lubricate the duct system
and nourish the sperm cells
– seminal vesicles
• produces fructose
– provides sperm cells energy and aids in their motility
– prostate gland
• responsible for the proof of semen
– bulbourethral glands
• also called Cowper glands