Transcript Unit 6 - Learning Teacher Version

Learning
Behaviorist Perspective
Wave Four: Behaviorism
• Behaviorism – ignored mental processes
and studied only observable behavior
– Believe behavior is LEARNED through conditioning
or through observation
• Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov
• John B. Watson
• Operant Conditioning
– B.F. Skinner
• Observational Learning
– Bandura
Learning
•Learning - Long lasting
change in a subjects
behavior brought about
by repeated experiences
in that situation
•Can’t be explained on the
basis of native response
tendencies (instinct or
natural behaviors),
maturation or temporary
states (fatigue, drugs,
etc)
Types of Learning
• Basic Learning
– Habituation
• Associative Learning
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning
• Cognitive Learning
– Memorization
– Problem Solving
– Creative Thinking
Basic Learning
• Habituation – organism’s decreasing response to a
stimulus with repeated exposure to it…a basic form
of learning
• Example:
– Sea slug habituates to the squirt of water. It’s withdrawal
response diminishes as squirts continue.
• This is similar to another term we’ve learned.
Can you think of what it is ?
Learned Associations
1. Associative Learning – learning that certain events
occur together
– Example: Sea slug anticipates a squirt of water with an
impeding shock
– Two types of Associative Learning:
1. Classical Conditioning – learn to assoc 2 stimuli and anticipate events
2. Operant Conditioning – learn to associate a response with a
consequence
• Conditioning – the process of learning associations\
2. Observational Learning – learn from others
experiences
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
• Observational learning
- Learning through
observing other’s
experiences
• Example:
– After one chimpanzee
sees a second chimp
open a box that contains
a food reward, the first
animal opens a similar
box with great speed.
According to psychologists, learning
involves
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1. The ability to think abstractly
2. A relatively permanent
change in behaviors due to
experience
3. The development of
prosocial behavior
4. A reduction in extrinsic
motivation
5. Acquiring knowledge that
can be recalled explicitly or
implicitly
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Learning that certain events occur
together is called
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1. Shaping
2. Latent learning
3. Observational
learning
4. Associative learning
5. Conditioned
reinforcement
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Conditioning is the process of
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1. Discrimination
2. Spontaneous
recovery
3. Learning association
4. Observational
learning
5. Generalizations
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Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
• Conducted 1st experiments
in associative learning
• Most known for studies in
classical conditioning
• Studied Digestion of Dogs.
– Dogs would salivate before
they were given food
(triggered by sounds, lights
etc…)
– Dogs must have LEARNED to
salivate.
Classical Conditioning
• Respondent Behavior actions that are automatic
(involuntary) responses to a
stimulus
– Passive learning (learner does
not have to think)
– Learning associations
between events learner
DOES NOT CONTROL
– Helps learner predict what
might happen
• Unconditional Stimulus
(UCS)- something that
elicits a natural, reflexive
response.
– Example = food
• Unconditional Response
(UCR)- unlearned and
natural response to the
UCS.
– Example = salivation
Classical Conditioning
• Neutral stimulus - something that by itself elicits
NO response
– Example - NS = bell
• You present the stimulus with the UCS a whole
bunch of times.
Classical Conditioning
• Once learning takes place…
• Neutral stimulus becomes the
conditioned stimulus
• (CS) – The stimulus that
originally elicited no response
but comes to trigger a
conditioned response
• Example: NS (bell) = CS
(bell)
• Unconditioned response
becomes the conditioned
response (CR) – learned
response to a previously
neutral stimulus
• Hint: conditioned response
always closely resembles the
the unconditioned response
• Example: UR (salivating) =
CR (salivating)
Pavlov’s Experiments
Classical Conditioning
5 Conditioning Responses
•
•
•
•
•
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Classical Conditioning
• After a while, the body
begins to link together the
neutral stimulus with the
UCS this process is called…
• Acquisition – initial learning
of stimulus response
relationship
– Example:
Timing Matters
• Timing is important
• Delayed Conditioning: present NS then while NS is still there,
present UCS.
• Time between presenting the tone & food = 0.5 is best
• Trace Conditioning: present NS, short break, then present UCS.
• Simultaneous Conditioning: NS and UCS are presented at the same
time.
• Backward Conditioning: UCS is presented, then NS is presented.
Higher Order Conditioning aka Second-Order
Conditioning •Higher Order Conditioning –
a new neutral stimulus
paired with a conditioned
stimulus can become a new
CS
•Often weaker than
original CS
First Order Conditioning.
•Bell + meat = salivation.
•Bell = Salivation.
Second Order Conditioning
(After first order
conditioning has occurred)
•Light + Bell = Salivation.
•Light = Salivation.
Classical Conditioning
– Learning exists because
the CS is now linked to
the UCS
• Example:
• Tone causes salivation
• Acquisition does not last
forever
Extinction
• Extinction - diminishing of
a conditioned response
• CS (tone) is repeatedly
presented WITHOUT the
UCS (food)
• To prevent extinction, you
would need to occasionally
pair the CS with the USs
• Example: hearing the tone
without food being
presented, tone will no longer
elicit salivation
Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous Recovery – After
extinction, followed by a rest period, the
CR will unexpectedly reappear to the CS
– Sometimes, after extinction, the CR still
randomly appears after the CS is presented.
– Occurs only after extinction has occurred
– Proves CS is not completely extinguished
• Example:
After the bell no longer triggers
salivation, suddenly the sound of a bell
will cause salivation
Generalization and Discrimination
Generalization
• Something is so similar
to the CS that you get a
CR.
• CR is evoked by similar
stimuli
Example: Dog salivates at sound
of bell,
Dog now salivates at sound of a
buzzer, metronome etc
Discrimination
• Something different to
the CS so you do not get
a CR.
Example: Pavlov’s dog only
salivated to one particular tone,
not a buzzer
Classical Conditioning and Humans
• John Watson - Baby Albert experiment.
• Studied how emotions can be classically
conditioned.
•
Identify the following concepts in the Little Albert Experiment or give an
example of a possible answer if it was not discussed. Then share your answer
with your neighbor
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
US?
UR?
CS?
CR?
Acquisition
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
• US?
•
Loud Noise
• UR?
•
Crying/Fear
• CS?
•
White Furry Object
•
Crying/Fear
• CR?
• Acquisition
•
Linking the NS (Furry Object to the Loud Noise
• Generalization
•
Fear of anything white and furry
• Discrimination
•
Only being afraid of the Rat and nothing else white and furry
• Extinction
•
No longer pairing the white furry object with noise
• Spontaneous Recovery
•
After extinction, the fear of the white furry object returns
Effects on ability to learn
through Classical Conditioning
1. Cognitive Processes
– Rescola and Wagner
– Seligman
2. Biological Predispositions
– Garcia and Kolling
Cognitive Processes
Expectancy (Rescola and Wagner) – an awareness of
how likely the US will occur
– the more predictable the association, the stronger the
conditioned response
– Rescorla and Wagner Study:
• Shock waves preceded by a tone and then preceded by a
light that accompanies tone
• Rat will fear the tone, but not the light
• Tone is a better predictor—light adds no new info
• Animal learns expectancy –likeliness that US will occur
• Learned Helplessness (Seligman) – hopeless and
passive resignation an animal has when unable to
avoid repeated negative events
– Example:
• Dogs strapped in a harness and given repeated shocks with
no way to avoid them, would not escape in another situation
when all they had to do was jump a hurdle. Some dogs gave
up even trying.
Biological Predispositions
• Classical Conditioning is biologically
adaptive
– It helps prepare animals for good and
bad events
• Snapping Twig predicts arrival of a
predictor
• Helps animals gain food, avoid dangers,
locate mates, produce offspring
– If Backwards Conditioning is used, it
doesn’t predict anything
important….except if your so
biologically predisposed to something
Biological Predispositions
• Garcia and Koelling Study
• Challenged the idea that any NS
can serve as a CS
CS
US
CR
Loud Noise
Shock
Fear
Loud Noise
Radiation (nausea)
Nothing
Sweet Water
Shock
Nothing
Sweet Water
Radiation (nausea)
Avoid Water
Occurred after
Only 1 trial!
Biological Predispositions
• Animals learn associations that enhance
survival
– conditioning faster, speedier and longer
lasting
• Garcia’s Studies:
– Rats
– Coyotes and sheep (sheep carcasses laced
with poison) = saved sheep and coyotes
– Poisoned food can cause sickness quite a
while after it has been eaten = an adaptive
advantage
• Similar Studies
– Japanese Quail and color red
– Learned associations between women’s
sexuality and color red
Think Pair Share
• Several days after drinking an excessive
amount of alcohol, Kendra becomes
nauseated simply by the smell of liquor. The
sight of the half-empty liquor bottle from
which she drank does not, however, upset her.
What does Kendra's pattern of response
indicate about the limits of associative
learning?
Operant Conditioning
•Operant Conditioning - Associate own
actions with positive or negative
consequences
• reinforcers increase behaviors
•punishments decrease behaviors
•Operant Behavior – voluntary
behaviors that produces rewarding or
punishing consequences
•The Learner is NOT passive
•Voluntary Response.
•Learning associations between events
organism does control and own behavior
The Law of Effect
• Edward Thorndike
• Experiments with cats
• Cats received a fish
reward whenever they
found a path out of a box.
• Cats got faster each time.
• Rewarded behavior is
likely to recur.
B.F. Skinner
•
•
•
The Big Daddy of Operant Conditioning.
Nurture guy through and through.
Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to
prove his concepts.
•
One of many famous studies: Superstition in pigeons
•
IV?
•
Operational Definition?
•
DV?
•
Operational definition?
•
Findings?
• Superstitions are learned. You are rewarded or
punished for a random set of actions.
• Time interval between reinforcements (reinforcement
schedules)
• Fixed Interval Schedule - Drop food pellets into the tray at
intervals of 15 sec.
• Superstitious behavior
• Superstituious Behavior - “accidentally reinforced
behaviors” (repeated behaviors before food is dispensed
that pigeons believe produces food) that occur between the
food dispensing
Skinner Box – an operant
conditioning chamber
containing a bar or key that
an animal can manipulate to
obtain a reinforcer (food),
a device records these
responses
Shaping Behavior
Shaping - a technique for
reinforcing new
behaviors.
• Reinforcers gradually
guide the animal to the
desired response.
– Shaping progresses more
rapidly when the
requirements for
reinforcement are small and
continuous
To train a dog to get your slippers, you
would have to reinforce him in small steps.
First, to move in the direction of the
slippers, then to find the slippers., then to
put them in his mouth, then to bring them
toward you and so on…this is shaping
behavior.
To get Barry to become a better math
student, you may reward him for doing the 1st
problem on his math homework, then for doing
two problems etc., until the entire homework
is done.
Shaping Behavior
Successive Approximations –
rewarding responses that are
closer and closer to the final
desired behavior and ignore all
other responses…each movement
toward the target behavior is
rewarded
Example:
Training Maui to jump over a stick
Step 1. Give Maui a treat when she moves
toward the stick then…
Step 2. Only give Maui a treat when she
puts a paw over the stick then…
Step 3. Only give Maui a treat when she
walks over the stick
Step 4: Only give Maui a treat when she
jumps over a ½ raised stick etc..
•Maui is rewarded for her successive
approximations
You could train
your boyfriend
this way too!!
Reinforces
• Reinforcer is anything that
INCREASES a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement:
• The addition of something pleasant.
– Examples: Treat, Praise
Negative Reinforcement:
• The removal of something unpleasant.
– Aka Escape Learning – escape from an
adverse stimulus
– Example: Heat, crying baby
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT
PUNISHMENT
Reinforcers
• Depends on the
perspective of the
person or animal be
reinforced
• Example:
• Billy needs his shoes
tied, so he starts to
whine to his father to
get his attention.
• Billy’s father ties his
shoe to get him to stop
whining
• For Billy – whining is
reinforced –
– added a stimulus which increased
Billy’s behavior = positive
reinforcement
• For Billy’s Dad – whining
stopped
–
removal of a negative stimulus
which increased Dad’s behavior =
negative reinforcement
Positive or Negative?
Putting your seatbelt on.
Faking sick to
avoid AP Psych
class.
Studying for a test.
Having a headache and
taking an aspirin.
Breaking out
of jail.
Getting a kiss
for doing the
dishes.
Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers
Conditioned
Primary Reinforcer
Reinforcer/Secondary
• Things that are in
Reinforcer
themselves rewarding
(innately satisfying, • A stimulus that gains its
reinforcing power through
unlearned)
– Example: Getting food when assoc. with a primary
hungry.
reinforcer
• Things we have learned to
value.
– Examples: Good Grades,
Money – a special secondary
reinforcer called a
generalized reinforcer
(because it can be traded for
just about anything)
Token Economy
• Token Economy - Every
time a desired
behavior is performed,
a token is given.
• They can trade tokens
in for a variety of
prizes (reinforcers)
• Examples: Used in
homes, prisons, mental
institutions and
schools.
Premack Principle
• Premack Principle – a
more preferred
activity can be used
to reinforce a less
preferred activity
– Example:
• Playing with friends
after you do your
homework
Punishment
Meant to decrease a
behavior.
Positive Punishment
• Addition of something
unpleasant.
Negative Punishment
(Omission Training)
• Removal of something
pleasant.
Punishment works best
when it is immediately
done after behavior
and if it is harsh!
Positive or Negative?
Spanking
Time out
Party plates
Losing
Driving
Privileges
Detention
No T.V.
Reinforcement & Punishment
Positive
Negative
Reinforcement
Add good
Remove bad
Punishment
Add bad
Remove good
Same Terminology as Classical
Conditioning
• Acquisition – Associating response with a
consequence
• Extinction – Responding decreases when
reinforcement stops
If we wanted to
reinforce this baby’s
dancing by giving him
– If don’t reinforce a bad behavior by giving in, the lollipops when he dances.
Identify the following….
behavior will become extinguished
• Spontaneous Recovery – reappearance of a
behavior after an extinguished response
– Bad behavior can reappear randomly
• Generalization – responses to similar stimuli are
being reinforced
• Discriminative stimulus – only a specific stimulus
will get the reaction that is reinforced
– Example: the specific command given “Sit”
– Telling a joke, to get laughs
•
The discriminative stimulus would be your friends (you may tell a
different joke in front of your priest)
Use Classical and Operant
Conditioning to explain each of
these ideas about Punishments
• Punished behavior is suppressed, not
forgotten
– Spontaneous Recovery
• Punishment teaches discrimination
– Classical or operant Conditioning
• Punishment can teach fear
– Classical Conditioning (Parent, school = CS,
Hitting =UCS, CR = Fear)
• Physical punishment may increase
aggressiveness
– Observational Learning
Immediate and Delayed
Reinforcers
• Immediate – present reinforcer right after
the desired behavior
• Delayed – most animals will not learn the
desired behavior, however, humans do respond
– Examples:
• Paycheck at end of the week
• Good Grade at end of term
• Delaying gratification for more valued rewards
is part of maturity
– Children who delay gratification are more socially
competent and high achieving adults
• Marshmallow Study
Reinforcement Schedules
How often do you give
the reinforcer?
• Every time or just
sometimes you see
the behavior.
Continuous v. Partial
Reinforcement
•
•
•
•
Continuous
Reinforce the behavior
EVERYTIME the behavior
is exhibited.
Usually done when the
subject is first learning
to make the association.
Acquisition comes really
fast.
But so does extinction.
– Example:
• Maui gets a treat every
time she goes over the
stick
Partial
• Reinforce the behavior only
SOME of the times it is
exhibited.
• Acquisition comes more
slowly.
• But is more resistant to
extinction.
• FOUR types of Partial
Reinforcement schedules.
• Examples:
• Fixed Ratio
• Variable Ratio
• Fixed Interval
• Variable Interval
Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
• Provides a reinforcement
• Provides a
after a RANDOM number of
reinforcement after a
responses (unpredictable).
SET number of
responses.
• Very hard to get acquisition
but also very resistant to
extinction.
Fixed Ration- She
gets a manicure for
every 5 pounds she
loses.
Variable Ratio – she gets a manicure after 5 lbs,
18 lbs, and 25lbs
Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
• Requires a SET amount
of time to elapse before
giving the
reinforcement.
• Time is known
• Requires a RANDOM
amount of time
(unpredictable) to
elapse before giving the
reinforcement.
• Very hard to get
acquisition but also very
resistant to extinction.
• Time is unknown
Examples: She gets a manicure
for every 7 days she stays on
her diet.
Checking to see when the
evening news comes on
Examples: She gets a manicure
after 7days she stays on her
diet, 25 days, and 32 days
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement Schedules
You are a new teacher in an AP Psychology class
and are deciding which reinforcement
schedule to use for pop quizzes. Using each of
the reinforcement schedules you learned
about today, explain how each would
reinforce the behavior (reading the textbook)
and select the one that would be best to
reinforce the behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed
Variable
Ratio
Predictable; a set or
fixed number
After an unpredictable
number; a changing
number
Interval
Predictable; a fixed
amount of time
Unpredictably often; a
changing amount of time
For Vina, cigarettes reduce feelings of tension
and anxiety. Because of her heavy smoking,
however, she has a bad morning cough and
breathing difficulties. How can the principles of
operant conditioning help to explain the
development and continuation of Vina's selfdefeating smoking habit? Explain the extent to
which the reinforcement for Vina's habit is
positive or negative, primary or conditioned,
immediate or delayed, partial or continuous.
Evidence of Cognition
1.
2.
3.
4.
Expectancy
Latent Learning
Insight Learning
Intrinsic
Motivation
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
1. Expectancy – organisms
develop expectations that
a response will be
reinforced or punished
– Animals on fixed-interval
reinforcement schedule
respond more and more
frequently as the time
approaches when a response
will produce a reinforcer
2. Latent Learning
• Edward Toleman
• Three rat experiment.
• Latent Learning - Latent
means hidden.
– Sometimes learning is not
immediately evident.
– Rats needed a reason to
display what they have
learned.
• Cognitive map – mental
representation of the layout
of one’s enviro.
3. Insight Learning
• Wolfgang Kohler and
his Chimpanzees.
• Insight Learning –
Sudden realization
of the solution to a
problem…an “ah ha”
moment.
Click pic to see insight learning.
4. Intrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic motivation –
motivation that comes from
inside an individual without
external rewards
– Example: Reading a book
because you enjoy reading
• Extrinsic Motivation –
motivation that comes from
promised rewards or to
avoid punishment
– Example: Reading Jane Eyre
because you want to get an A
on Grondolsky’s or Fitch’s
test
Overjustification Effect
• Overjustification Effect –
occurs when an expected
external incentive such as
money or prizes decreases a
person's intrinsic motivation
to perform a task.
– Example: You love to read
because you just enjoy it.
Your teacher gives you prizes
for every 10 books you read.
You know longer enjoy it.
Biological Predispositions
• Organisms learn
behaviors similar to
their own natural
behaviors best
• Instinctive Drift reverting to biologically
predisposed behaviors
– Examples: Pigs who put
coins in a bank began to
push them with their
snouts
Contrasting Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Skinner’s Legacy
Applications of Operant Conditioning
•
•
•
•
At school
In sports
At home
For selfimprovement
• Biofeedback – feeding
back info regarding
physiological responses
to learn how to control
specific responses
Observational Learning
• Observational learning/Social
Learning – learning by
observing and imitating
others
– Example: child who sees a parent
hit, learns to hit
• Modeling – the process of
observing and imitating a
specific behavior
– Example: fads and fashions
Children who receive
physical punishment
tend to display more
aggression
Mirrors in the Brain
• Mirror neurons – frontal lobe neurons that
fire when performing certain actions or when
observing others
– Example: empathy and imitation
• Theory of mind – a child’s developmental
ability to empathize and infer another
persons state of mind
– Example: knowing when your friend is sad
Observational Learning
• Albert Bandura and his
BoBo Doll
• We learn through modeling
behavior from others.
• Social Learning Theory Observational learning +
Operant Conditioning
– Whether we imitate a model
is base on whether the model
is rewarded or punished
Bobo Doll Experiment
• IV – Aggressive or non-aggressive
modeling and sex of model
– Op Definition: The model is to lay Bobo
on its side, sit on it, and punch in
repeatedly (3 times in the nose). The
model should then raise the doll, pick up
the mallet and strike the doll on the
head…
• DV – the aggressive responses from
children in the different conditions
– Op Def – count the imitated physical,
verbal, mallet and nonimitative
behaviors
Results
• Children in nonaggressive group
showed significantly fewer
instances of violence than those
in the aggressive model group
• Boys violent behavior was
influenced more by aggressive
male models than by aggressive
female models
• Girls more likely to imitate
verbal aggression, males physical
violence
Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects
• Prosocial effects – positive, constructive,
helpful behavior
– Example: encouraging children to read by reading yourself,
reading to them, and surrounding them with books
• Antisocial effects – negative, destructive,
unhelpful behavior
– Example:
• Violence Viewing Effect – imitating and desensitization to
violence leads to violent actions