Transcript Observational research - People Server at UNCW

Chapter 11
Data Collection Methods
Observational research: Observing
the behavior of individuals

Observational research
– Watching people and systematically recording
their behavior.
– Can be used to collect data in experimental
and non-experimental research (text focuses
on non-experimental).
– It may be difficult or impossible to observe
some behaviors we are interested in.
Observational research

Observing behavior from the outside: Naturalistic
observation
– Involves making systematic observations of behavior in
the environment where it occurs naturally.
– Used to study behavior as it naturally occurs and in a
way that is as unobtrusive as possible.
– Well suited for studying behaviors that we fear would
be altered or not occur at all if the participants knew
they were being observed (reactivity effect).
– High external validity.
– Can be time-consuming and inconvenient.
Observational research

Observing behavior from the inside: Participant
observation
– The researchers enter the world of the people they
are interested in studying and maintain field notes
chronicling their observations.
– Usually provides rich narratives about the experiences
of the observed and the observer.
– Advantages:
 Introduces us to the world of others.
 High external validity.
 The researcher is able to experience the same environmental
conditions as the participants.
 Can collect information on factors that may not be overtly
observable.
Observational research

Observing behavior from the inside: Participant
observation
– Subjectivity is a major advantage of participant
observation and it is also a major disadvantage.
Researchers must be able to maintain/regain their
objectivity and not misrepresent or bias their
observations as a result of their experiences.
– Disadvantages:
 Time consuming and potentially dangerous.
 May be difficult to gain entrance into certain groups.
 Ethical issues (e.g.. need to maintain anonymity of your
informants).
Observational research

Observing behavior in a controlled setting:
Laboratory observation
– When we observe behavior in the laboratory,
we can create the conditions necessary to
make the behavior occur.
– Trade-off between external validity and level
of control.
– May lack external validity.
Observational research

Advantages and disadvantages of observational
research
– In all types of observational research it is important to
form clear definitions of the behaviors you are
interested in observing.
– Wherever research is conducted, the researcher must
be accountable for any harm to the participants. Steps
must be taken to guard the rights of those involved.
– Observational research is often time-consuming and
requires observers who are trained to carefully record
behavioral observations.
Survey research: Asking people
questions about their behavior

Surveys
– Used to measure people’s opinions and
attitudes, variables that may be difficult or
impossible to observe directly.

Defining your research question
– From start to finish, your research question or
hypothesis must guide you.
– Need to be certain about your purpose.
Survey research

How will you ask your questions?
– Survey – refers to the action of collecting information.
– Questionnaire – a list of questions that are asked
when you are collecting information.
– Need to determine the kinds of information you need
and the best method of obtaining that information.
Also need to consider who your respondents are.
– Time, money, literacy, and respondent honesty are all
factors that need to be considered when making the
choice.
Survey research

Interviews
– Interviewing can be very expensive and time
consuming, and it requires trained interviewers.
– Allows rapport to be built, which can be an
advantage and a disadvantage.
– Includes:
 Face-to-face interviews
 Telephone interviews
Interviews

Face-to-face interview
– Generally, if the population you want to study
is available at a particular location and your
questions don't take more than about five
minutes, then the simplest approach is to go
to where your group is and interview them in
person.
– Do not need to have respondents complete an
informed consent form before they answer
your questions, but still need to consider the
ethics of consent.
Interviews

Face-to-face interview
– Advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face
interviews
 Advantages
– Gather information directly from the people you are
interested in researching.
– Can explore complex issues that do not lend themselves
to multiple-choice answers (e.g.. probing questions and
open-ended questions). [Note: it is very important that
the probes be neutral so as not to bias responses.]
Interviews

Face-to-face interview
– Advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face
interviews
 Disadvantages
– Can be very time consuming.
– Participant discomfort in discussing personal or
embarrassing topics.
– Social desirability - the tendency for people to respond in
a manner that makes them appear better than they are.
– Labor intensive.
– Practical limitations in terms of the number of participants.
Interviews

Telephone interview
– Best choice if your research question requires
interviewing a large number of respondents
who are spread over a large geographical
area.
– Generally shorter than face-to-face interviews.
– Data are often coded and entered into a
computer directly by the telephone
interviewer.
Interviews

Telephone interview
– Advantages and disadvantages of telephone
interviews
 Advantage:
– Don’t have to be in the same location as the respondent.
 Disadvantages:
– Selection bias as a results of individuals screening calls.
– Time consuming.
– Require trained interviewers.
Survey research

Types of questionnaires:
– Self-administered questionnaires
– Group-administered questionnaires
– Mail-out questionnaires
– Internet questionnaires
Questionnaires

Self-administered questionnaires
– Survey questions that are read and answered
by the respondent with little or no direct
contact with the researcher.
– Advantages:
 Cheap
 Fast
 Anonymous
– Requires literacy and for the questionnaire to
be well written.
Questionnaires

Group-administered questionnaires
– If it is possible to gather your respondents into
groups (e.g.. students in classrooms), then group
administration is probably your best option.
– Need someone to distribute and collect the
questionnaire.
– Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Fast
 High response rates
– Someone is present while the participants complete
the questionnaire. This administrator can give verbal
instructions and answer questions.
Questionnaires

Mail-out questionnaires
– Quick and economical method for distributing your
questionnaire to a large number of people spread
over a large area .
– Gives respondents a feeling of confidentiality and
anonymity.
– Main problem: poor response rates. This results in
increased costs and potentially poor validity as the
respondents may not be representative of the
population.
– You do not control who completes the questionnaire.
Questionnaires

Internet questionnaires
– Provides respondents with a strong feeling of
anonymity.
– Allows you to target special groups.
– Many of the same problems as other survey research:
 People who don’t use the Internet will not be included in an
Internet survey.
 Social desirability and other kinds of response bias.
 Poor response rate.
– Internet research has special problems such as
multiple submissions from the same respondents.
Survey research

General guidelines for writing survey
questions
– Wording of your questions is important.
– Ensure that your questions are asking what
you intend them to ask by pre-testing your
items.
– Do a pilot study to detect other problems
before beginning the full study.
Writing Survey Questions

Guidelines:
– Keep your questions short and simple.
 This helps ensure respondents clearly understand
your questions.
– Avoid using ‘and’ in your questions.
 You should measure no more than one dimension
with each question.
– Do not use biased wording in your questions.
– Be sure you avoid using double negatives.
 Can be confusing for respondents.
Type of questions

Open-ended questions
– Items that simply have a blank space for the
response.
– Best choice if you are not sure how people
will answer a question or if you are looking for
diverse responses.
– Disadvantage is that they may be difficult to
analyze.
– Can be time consuming and costly.
Type of questions

Forced choice questions
– Items that include response categories.
– Easier to analyze and easier to answer.
– Must be sure that the response choices include
all the possible responses people can make.
 You may include an “other” category – be sure to
leave a blank for people to enter their response.
– Need to provide clear instructions that only
one response may be selected.
General rules for self-administered
questionnaires
Very important that it looks professional.
 Should be easy to read and organized in a way
that is easy to follow.
 Mailed questionnaires should include a cover
letter with sufficient information for participants
to decide to whether or not to participate (like
informed consent).
 Use clear organization so that your respondent
does not get lost filling it out (e.g.. try to
organize the questions by topic).

Observing group behavior:
The focus group

Could be described as a face-to-face interview of a small
group of people in which participants can interact and
generate ideas from one another.

Often used to measure attitudes, opinions, or selfreported behavior of select groups.

Advantage of revealing information that may not surface
in face-to-face interviews.

Dynamic nature of focus groups can lead to problems
(e.g.. a few forceful members dominate the discussion).

Usually recorded so the content of the discussion can be
analyzed later using qualitative techniques.