Transcript Chapter 1 - Human Anatomy

DAY 1
• Why am I in this class?
• Is it hard?
• Who will I have to become to get an A in this
class?
• What is critical thinking?
• What does THIS teacher want from us?
• How much work do I have to do?
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A FEW ANSWERS:
• Rules:
• Class begins at 3PM Sharp!
• Homework will be assigned on Masteringbiology.com and
will be due on the day of the next exam.
• There will be 15 quizzes in lecture and lab as per the
schedule
• Kindly sit in the same seat in lecture and lab so that I may
make a chart and learn your names on Tuesday of the
second week.
• You will be a part of a lecture group and a lab group
• You’re going to have a blast in this class!
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What will we learn in this class?
• Great question! Here are the biggest theories in
biology
• 1. Chemistry – electrons, protons, atoms, molecules and their interactions and
products.Included will be concepts such as entropy, diffusion, osmosis, cellular
respiration, photosynthesis, energy etc.
• 2. Cells – Cell theory is a primary concept in biology since it is believed that life is
made of cells and all cells are ancestors of prior cells. Anatomy and physiology of cells
and cell membranes.
• 3. DNA – The chemical formula and structure of DNA.
DNA transcription,
translation and reproduction. How proteins are made from DNA.
• 4. Genetics – How DNA is expressed.
How traits are inherited. Normal
and abnormal genetic expression, punnett squares. Darwin.
• 5. Evolution – How life began.
From the first cell to millions of
expressions of DNA in the form of organisms. Classification of all organisms.
• 6. Environments – ecosystems, organisms and the environment.
we’ll conclude studies of the scientific method.
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Here
Did you know this?
Link to article online
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What to know:
•
Your exam questions for this chapter will directly relate to these topics
•
The properties of life – be able to answer what makes something “living”
•
The levels of life from atoms to the biosphere Be able to go from atoms to the biosphere
•
Ecosystems - Be able to define ecosystems, populations, communities
•
Cells and DNA – know the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Know what DNA is
•
Diversity of Life – know how diverse life is
•
The three domains of life – know how scientists categorize all living things beginning with domains
•
Unity and diversity of life – know what unites all living things and what makes things so different
•
Evolution – know what the current theory of evolution is (whether it’s right or not)
•
Darwin – know what Darwin is famous for
•
Natural Selection – what is natural selection?
•
Artificial Selection – what is artificial selection?
•
The process of Science – what is science and how do scientists discover new things?
•
Discovery science – what is discovery science
•
The scientific method – know all of the steps of the scientific method
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On to Biology
• What is biology? The study of life.
• What is living?
• What is non-living?
• Can we live without the non-living
environment?
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I WILL ASK A QUESTION ABOUT THE PROPERTIES OF LIFE!
• Some properties of life KNOW THIS!
(a) Order
(b) Evolutionary
adaptation
(c) Response to the
environment
(d) Regulation
(e) Energy
processing
(f) Growth and
development
Figure 1.2
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(g) Reproduction
Properties of Life
know all of these for exam!
•
Order – all living things exhibit complex but ordered organization, as seen in
the structure of a pinecone
•
Regulation – the environment outside an organism may change drastically, but
the organism can adjust its internal environment, keeping it within appropriate
limits.
•
Growth and development – information carried by DNA controls the pattern of
growth and evelopment in all organisms.
•
Energy processing – organisms take in energy and use it to perform all of life’s
activities; they emit energy as heat.
•
Response to the environment – all organisms respond to environmental
stimuli. A carnivorous Venus fllytrap closes its leaves rapidly in response to the
environmental stimulus of an insect touching the plant’s sensory hairs.
•
Reproduction – organisms reproduce their own kind.
•
Evolution – populations change over time to maximize survival
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Figure 1.2a
Levels of Organization
Know this!
Biosphere
Earth’s Biosphere
includes all life
and all of the
places where life
exists
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
Organisms
Organ Systems and Organs
Tissues
Cells
1 Biosphere
Organelles
Molecules
Atoms
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Figure 1.2b
Ecosystem:
Communities
All living
organisms in a
particular area
and all the
nonliving
components of
the
environment
with which life
interacts such
as soil, water
and light
All organisms in
the tide pool (for
example) are
collectively called
a community
2 Ecosystems
3 Communities
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Figure 1.2c
4 Populations: members of one species
5 Organisms: an individual
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Figure 1.2d
6 Organ Systems and Organs
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Figure 1.2e
7 Tissues
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Figure 1.2f
The cell is the is
the smallest unit of
life and has all of
the structures to
perform all of the
activities of life
Nucleus
8 Cells
9 Organelles
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A Closer Look at Cells
• The cell KNOW THIS!
– Is the lowest level of organization that can
perform all activities required for life
Figure 1.5
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25 µm
The building blocks of everything are atoms, but, atoms have many
moving parts! 
We consider that the atom is the smallest building block of matter.
Actually, it’s the smallest “coherent” piece of matter (to be continued)
Atom
10 Molecules and Atoms
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A Closer Look at Ecosystems
KNOW THIS DEFINITION!
• Each organism
– Interacts with its environment
• Both organism and environment
– Are affected by the interactions between them
– Don’t just let this very profound statement go
through your conscious thought and just let go.
– Ask yourself the question, “can I find an
example of how the environment affects a
particular animal or plant?”.
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Ecosystem Dynamics
• The dynamics of any ecosystem include two
major processes
– Cycling of nutrients, in which materials
acquired by plants eventually return to the soil
– The flow of energy from sunlight to producers
to consumers
– Only energy is lost from an ecosystem so it
needs a constant influx of energy, usually from
the sun.
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Energy Conversion
UNDERSTAND THIS CONCEPT
• Activities of life
– Require organisms to perform work, which
depends on an energy source
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• The exchange of energy between an organism
and its surroundings
– Often involves the transformation of one form
of energy to another
– Can you think of a system of energy
exchange?
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• Energy flows through an ecosystem
– Usually entering as sunlight and exiting as
heat
Sunlight
Pay particlar
attention to
the
producers,
consumers
and
decomposers
Ecosystem
Producers
(plants and other
photosynthetic
organisms)
Heat
Chemical
energy
Consumers
(including animals)
Figure 1.4
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Heat
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• What are human beings in the trophic pyramid?
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Two Main Forms of Cells
• All cells share certain characteristics
– They are all enclosed by a membrane
– They all use DNA as genetic information
• There are two main forms of cells
– Eukaryotic
– Prokaryotic
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Smallest living unit: The Cell
The earliest cells were called prokaryotic. This means that the
DNA is distributed within the cytoplasm. They hadn’t evolved
a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus where the DNA
resides.
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Cells and Their DNA
– We can distinguish two major types of cells:
1. The prokaryotic cell is
– simpler and usually smaller and
– characteristic of bacteria.
2. The eukaryotic cell is
– subdivided by internal membranes into
different functional compartments called
organelles and
– found in plants and animals.
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Pearson Education,
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Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Cell’s Heritable Information KNOW THIS!
• Cells contain chromosomes made partly of
DNA, the substance of genes
– Which program the cells’ production of proteins
and transmit information from parents to
offspring
Sperm cell
Nuclei
containing
DNA
Egg cell
Fertilized egg
with DNA from
both parents
Figure 1.6
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Embyro’s cells
with copies of
inherited DNA
Offspring with traits
inherited from
both parents
DNA
• The molecular structure of DNA
– Accounts for it information-rich nature
Nucleus
DNA
Cell
Nucleotide
Figure 1.7
(a) DNA double helix. This model shows
each atom in a segment of DNA.Made
up of two long chains of building
blocks called nucleotides, a DNA
molecule takes the three-dimensional
form of a double helix.
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A
C
T
A
T
A
C
C
G
T
A
G
T
A
A gene is a funtional
unit within DNA and
is considered a unit
of heredity
(b) Single strand of DNA. These geometric shapes and
letters are simple symbols for the nucleotides in a
small section of one chain of a DNA molecule.
Genetic information is encoded in specific sequences
of the four types of nucleotides (their names are
abbreviated here as A, T, C, and G).
Figure 1.UN02
Life
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Plantae Fungi
Domain
Bacteria
Domain
Archaea
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Animalia
Three kingdoms
Protists
(all other
eukaryotes)
Domain Eukarya
Organelles are subunits of cells which perform the functions of the cell
Prokaryotic cell (bacterium)
Organelles
• Smaller
• Simpler structure
• DNA concentrated in
nucleoid region, which is
not enclosed by membrane
• Lacks most organelles
Eukaryotic cell
• Larger
• More complex
structure
• Nucleus enclosed
by membrane
• Contains many
types of organelles
Nucleoid
region
Colorized TEM
Nucleus
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Figure 1.4a
Prokaryotic cell (bacterium)
• Smaller
• Simpler structure
• DNA concentrated in
nucleoid region, which is
not enclosed by membrane
Colorized TEM
• Lacks most organelles
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Nucleoid
region
• Prokaryotic cells
– Lack the kinds of membrane-enclosed
organelles found in eukaryotic cells
EUKARYOTIC CELL
PROKARYOTIC CELL
DNA
Membrane
(no nucleus)
Membrane
Cytoplasm
Organelles
Figure 1.8
Nucleus (contains DNA)
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1 µm
Grouping Species: The Basic Idea
• Taxonomy KNOW THIS!
• Early scientists had lots of observations but no
system in which to organize that data.
• Taxonomy was created to solve one of those
problems, namely, which living things are
related to other living things.
– Is the branch of biology that names and
classifies species according to a system of
broader and broader groups
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The Three Domains of Life
• At the highest level, life is classified into three
domains KNOW THIS!
– Bacteria
– Archaea
– Eukarya
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Taxonomy is how scientists place living things in categories for more
organized study. It categorizes diverse organisms into smaller and
smaller numbers of groups.
The largest categories are the Domains: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya
Life
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Plantae Fungi
Domain
Bacteria
Domain
Archaea
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Animalia
Three kingdoms
Protists
(all other
eukaryotes)
Domain Eukarya
• Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea
– Consist of prokaryotes
• Domain Eukarya, the eukaryotes
– Includes the various protist kingdoms and the
kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia
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• Life’s three domains
Bacteria are the most diverse
4 µm
and widespread prokaryotes
and are now divided among multiple
kingdoms. Each of the rod-shaped
structures in this photo is a bacterial cell.
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
Figure 1.15
Many of the prokaryotes known
0.5 µm
as archaea live in Earth‘s
extreme environments, such as salty lakes
and boiling hot springs. Domain Archaea
includes multiple kingdoms. The photo
shows a colony composed of many cells.
Protists (multiple kingdoms)
100 µm
are unicellular eukaryotes and
their relatively simple multicellular
relatives.Pictured here is an assortment of
protists inhabiting pond water. Scientists are
currently debating how to split the protists
into several kingdoms that better represent
evolution and diversity.
Kingdom Plantae consists of
multicellula eukaryotes that carry
out photosynthesis, the conversion
of light energy to food.
Kindom Fungi is defined in part by the
nutritional mode of its members, such
as this mushroom, which absorb
nutrientsafter decomposing organic
material.
Kindom Animalia consists of
multicellular eukaryotes that
ingest other organisms.
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• Classifying life KNOW THIS!
Species Genus Family
Order
Class
Phylum
Ursus
americanus
(American
black bear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Figure 1.14
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Eukarya
Kingdom
Domain
• Biologists explore life across its great diversity
of species
• Diversity is a hallmark of life
Figure 1.13
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Unity in the Diversity of Life KNOW THIS!
• As diverse as life is
– There is also evidence of remarkable unity
15 µm
The branch of biology
that explains both the
diversity and unity of life
is EVOLUTION
1.0 µm
Cilia of Paramecium.
The cilia of Paramecium
propel the cell through
pond water.
5 µm
Figure 1.16
Cross section of cilium, as viewed
with an electron microscope
Cilia of windpipe cells. The cells that line the human windpipe
are equipped with cilia that help keep the lungs clean by moving
a film of debris-trapping mucus upward.
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• Evolution accounts for life’s unity and diversity
(theoretically…look it up)
• The history of life
– Is a saga of a changing Earth billions of years old
Figure 1.17
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KNOW THIS!
• The evolutionary view of life
– Came into sharp focus in 1859 when Charles
Darwin published On the Origin of Species by
Natural Selection
Darwin is most closely
associated with the
concept of Natural
Selection
Figure 1.18
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EVOLUTION:
BIOLOGY’S UNIFYING THEME
– Life evolves.
• Each species is one twig of a branching tree
of life extending back in time through
ancestral species more and more remote.
• Species that are very similar, such as the
brown bear and polar bear, share a more
recent common ancestor.
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Education,
Pearson Education,
Inc.
Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure
1.10
This graphic
is called a cladogram
Giant panda
Spectacled bear
Ancestral
bear
Sloth bear
Sun bear
Common ancestor
of all modern bears
American black bear
Asiatic black bear
Common ancestor of
polar bear and brown bear
Polar bear
Brown bear
30
25
20
15
10
Millions of years ago
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5
The Darwinian View of Life
– Darwin’s book developed two main points:
1. Species living today descended from a
succession of ancestral species in what Darwin
called “descent with modification,” capturing the
duality of life’s
– unity (descent) and
– diversity (modification).
2. Natural selection is the mechanism for descent
with modification.
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© 2005
Education,
Pearson Education,
Inc.
Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Natural Selection
– Darwin was struck by the diversity of animals on
the Galápagos Islands.
– He thought that adaptation to the environment and
the origin of new species were closely related
processes.
• As populations separated by a geographic
barrier adapted to local environments, they
became separate species.
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© 2005
Education,
Pearson Education,
Inc.
Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The Origin of Species articulated two main
points
– Descent with modification
– Natural selection
Figure 1.19
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Natural Selection Understand This Concept
• Darwin proposed natural selection
– As the mechanism for evolutionary adaptation
of populations to their environments
Population
of organisms
Hereditary
variations
Overproduction
and struggle for
existence
Differences in
reproductive success
Figure 1.20
Evolution of adaptations
in the population
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• Natural selection is the evolutionary process that
occurs
– When a population’s heritable variations are exposed
to environmental factors that favor the reproductive
success of some individuals over others
1
Populations with varied inherited traits
2 Elimination of individuals with certain traits.
3 Reproduction of survivors.
Figure 1.21
4 Increasing frequency of traits that enhance
survival and reproductive success.
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• The products of natural selection
– Are often exquisite adaptations of organisms to
the special circumstances of their way of life
and their environment
Figure 1.22
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Artificial Selection
1.
Artificial selection is the intentional reproduction of individuals in a
population that have desirable traits. In organisms that reproduce
sexually, two adults that possess a desired trait — such as two
parent plants that are tall — are bred together.
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The Tree of Life
• Many related organisms
– Have very similar anatomical features, adapted
for their specific ways of life
• Such examples of kinship
– Connect life’s “unity in diversity” to Darwin’s
concept of “descent with modification”
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• Darwin proposed that natural selection
– Could enable an ancestral species to “split” into two or
more descendant species, resulting in a “tree of life”
Large
ground finch
Large cactus
ground finch
Small
ground
finch
Large
tree finch
Camarhynchus
Green
Geospiza
Gray
Geospiza
magnirostris
psitacula
warbler
warbler
Sharp-beaked
fuliginosa
Woodpecker Medium
Geospiza Medium
finch
finch
tree
finch
ground finch
finch
conirostris ground
finch
Certhidea Certhidea
GeospizaCactus
Cactospiza Camarhynchus olivacea fusca
difficilis ground finch
pauper
pallida
Geospiza Mangrove
Small tree finch
finch
fortis
Geospiza
Camarhynchus
Cactospiza
scandens
parvulus
heliobates
Vegetarian
Cactus flower
Seed eater
Seed eater
finch
eater
Platyspiza
crassirostris
Insect eaters
Ground finches
Figure 1.23
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Tree finches
Bud eater
Warbler finches
Common ancestor from
South American mainland
• Each species is on twig of a branching tree of
life
– Extending back in time through ancestral
species more and more remote
• All of life
– Is connected through its long evolutionary
history
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Science
• Biologists use various forms of inquiry to explore life
• At the heart of science is inquiry or a question
• A question usually comes after a careful observation
– A search for information and explanation, often
focusing on specific questions
• Biology blends two main processes of scientific inquiry
– Discovery science
– Hypothesis-based science
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What is Science
• The inquiry-based effort to describe and
explain nature.
• What is the difference between discovery
science and hypothesis-driven science?
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Discovery Science KNOW THIS!
• Discovery science
• Scientists seek natural causes for natural
phenomena. This limits the scope of science
to the study of structures and processes that
we can observe and measure in some way that
is repeatable.
– Describes natural structures and processes as
accurately as possible through careful
observation and analysis of data
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Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• Two methods of scientific inquiry use inductive
and deductive reasoning. Know how they differ
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Hypothesis-Based Science KNOW THIS!
• In science, inquiry that asks specific questions
– Usually involves the proposing and testing of
hypothetical explanations, or hypotheses
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Hypothesis Driven Science
• In science, a hypothesis
– Is a tentative answer to a well-framed
question, an explanation on trial
– Makes predictions that can be tested
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REMEMBER THESE STEPS FOR THE EXAM!
• We all use hypotheses in solving everyday
problems
Observations
Questions
Hypothesis # 1:
Dead batteries
Prediction:
Replacing batteries
will fix problem
Test prediction
Figure 1.25
Test falsifies hypothesis
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Hypothesis # 2:
Burnt-out bulb
Prediction:
Replacing bulb
will fix problem
Test prediction
Test does not falsify hypothesis
Deduction: The “If…then” Logic of Hypothesis-Based Science
• In deductive reasoning
– The logic flows from the general to the specific
• If a hypothesis is correct
– Then we can expect a particular outcome
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A Closer Look at Hypotheses in Scientific Inquiry
• A scientific hypothesis must have two important
qualities
– It must be testable
– It must be falsifiable
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The Myth of the Scientific Method
• The scientific method
– Is an idealized process of inquiry
• Very few scientific inquiries adhere to the
“textbook” scientific method
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Figure 1.15-1
Let’s say that your TV remote fails to turn on your TV. That’s
an observation. The question is obvious: Why doesn’t the
remote work? Follow the diagram…
Observation
The remote
doesn’t
work.
Question
What’s
wrong?
Hypothesis
The
batteries
are dead.
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Prediction
With new
batteries, it
will work.
Figure 1.15-2
Observation
The remote
doesn’t
work.
Question
What’s
wrong?
Hypothesis
The
batteries
are dead.
Prediction
With new
batteries, it
will work.
Experiment
Replace
batteries.
Experiment
supports
hypothesis;
make more
predictions
and test.
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Figure 1.15-3
Observation
The remote
doesn’t
work.
Question
What’s
wrong?
Revise.
Experiment
does not
support
hypothesis.
Hypothesis
The
batteries
are dead.
Prediction
With new
batteries, it
will work.
Experiment
Replace
batteries.
Experiment
supports
hypothesis;
make more
predictions
and test.
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Example:
• You try to start your car, but it does not start.
What is your hypothesis?
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Question
• Do you remember the proper components of
the Scientific Method?
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Limitations of Science
• Science cannot address supernatural
phenomena
– Because hypotheses must be testable and
falsifiable and experimental results must be
repeatable
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