Transcript current

Physics Department
26-2 Electric Current
An electric current is a stream of moving charges.
However, not all moving charges constitute an electric current.
To have that, there must be a net flow of charge through a surface.
Consider a flow of water through a garden hose.
The flow of water through a garden hose represents the directed flow of
positive charge (the protons in the water molecules) at a rate of perhaps
several million coulombs per second. There is no net transport of charge,
however, because there is a parallel flow of negative charge (the
electrons in the water molecules) of exactly the same amount moving in
exactly the same direction.
26-2 Electric Current
The free electrons (conduction electrons)
in an isolated length of copper wire are in
random motion at speeds of the order of
106 m/s. If you pass a hypothetical plane
through such a wire, conduction electrons
pass through it in both directions at the
rate of many billions per second—but
there is no net transport of charge and
thus no current through the wire.
However, if you connect the ends of the
wire to a battery, you slightly bias the
flow in one direction, with the result that
there now is a net transport of charge
and thus an electric current through the
wire.
26-2 Electric Current
As Fig. (a) reminds us, any isolated
conducting loop—regardless of whether
it has an excess charge — is all at the
same potential. No electric field can exist
within it or along its surface.
If we insert a battery in the loop, as in Fig. (b), the
conducting loop is no longer at a single potential.
Electric fields act inside the material making up the
loop, exerting forces on internal charges, causing
them to move and thus establishing a current. (The
diagram assumes the motion of positive charges
moving clockwise.)
(b)
After a very short time, the electron flow reaches a constant value
and the current is in its steady state (it does not vary with time).
.
26-2 Electric Current
Figure shows a section of a conductor, part of a conducting
loop in which current has been established. If charge dq
passes through a hypothetical plane (such as: aa’) in time
dt, then the current i through that plane is defined as
The charge that passes through the plane
in a time interval extending from 0 to t is:
Under steady-state conditions, the current is the same for planes aa’, bb’, and cc’
and for all planes that pass completely through the conductor, no matter what
their location or orientation.
26-2 Electric Current
26-2 Electric Current
Figure (a) shows a conductor with current i0 splitting
at a junction into two branches. Because charge is
conserved, the magnitudes of the currents in the
branches must add to yield the magnitude of the current
in the original conductor, so that
Figure (b) suggests, bending or reorienting the wires
in space does not change the validity of the above
equation. Current arrows show only a direction (or
sense) of flow along a conductor, not a direction in
space.
26-2 Electric Current
The Directions of Currents
We drew the current arrows in the direction
in which positively charged particles would
be forced to move through the loop by the
electric field. Actually electric field forces
them to move in the direction opposite the
current arrows, from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal. For historical reasons,
however, we use the following convention:
26-2 Electric Current
The Directions of Currents
If the flowing charge carriers are
positive, the direction of current is
along velocity of charges.
If the flowing charge carriers are
negative the direction of current is
opposite to velocity
of charges.
26-3 Current Density
The magnitude of current density, (a vector quantity), is equal
to the current per unit area through any element of cross section.
It has the same direction as the current
Current (a scalar quantity) is related to current density (a vector quantity) by
where
area
is the area vector of the element, perpendicular to a surface element of
If the current is uniform across the surface and parallel to
uniform and parallel to
, and then
where A is the total area of the surface
, then
is also
26-3 Current Density
The SI unit for current density is the Ampere per Square
Meter (A/m2).
Figure 26-4 shows how current density can
be represented with a similar set of lines,
which we can call streamlines.
The current, which is toward the right, makes
a transition from the wider conductor at the
left to the narrower conductor at the right.
Since charge is conserved during the
transition, the amount of charge and thus the
amount of current cannot change.
However, the current density changes—it is
greater in the narrower conductor.
26-3 Current Density
Drift Speed
When a conductor has a current passing through it, the electrons move
randomly, but they tend to drift with a drift speed vd in the direction
opposite that of the applied electric field that causes the current. The
drift speed is tiny compared with the speeds in the random motion.
In the figure, the equivalent drift of positive charge carriers is in the
direction of the applied electric field, E.
26-3 Current Density
Drift Speed
If we assume that these charge carriers all move
with the same drift speed vd and that the current
density J is uniform across the wire’s crosssectional area A, then the number of charge
carriers in a length L of the wire is nAL. Here n is
the number of carriers per unit volume.
The total charge of the carriers in the length L,
each with charge e, is then
Because the carriers all move along the wire with
speed vd , this total charge moves through any
cross section of the wire in the time interva
26-3 Current Density
Drift Speed
Here the product ne, whose SI unit is the coulomb per cubic meter (C/m3),
is the carrier charge density.
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
If we apply the same potential difference between the ends of geometrically
similar rods of copper and of glass, very different currents result. The
characteristic of the conductor that enters here is its electrical resistance
We determine the resistance between any two points of a conductor by
applying a potential difference V between those points and measuring
the current i that results. The resistance R of a conductor is defined as
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
The SI unit for resistance is the volt per ampere.
This has a special name, the ohm (symbol W):
In a circuit diagram, we represent a resistor and a
resistance with the symbol .
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
Instead of the resistance R of an object, we
may deal with the resistivity ρ of the material
The resistivity, r, of a resistor is defined as:
We can write this equation in vector form as
The SI unit for r is W m
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
Conductivity
Conductivity σ of a material is an other term which is
defined as
We can write this equation in vector form as
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
Calculating Resistance from Resistivity
Example: We can define resistance of a particular copper wire, but resistivity is
defined for material copper
If we know the resistivity of a substance such as copper, we can calculate
the resistance of a length of wire made of that substance
Let A be the cross-sectional area of the wire, let L be its
length, and let a potential difference V exist between
its ends. will have the values
All are made up of copper therefore have same resistivity.
Current through a conducting object for same applied potential difference V is
a)
b)
c)
a and c tie, then b
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
Variation of Resistivity with temperature
• It can be seen that the variation of resistivity ρ
with temperature is more or less linear.
• For many practical purposes, following
empirical formula is used.
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity
• Since we only measure temperature
difference, therefore it does not
matter whether we use Celsius or
Kelvin scale.
• α is called temperature coefficient of
resistivity, it is chosen so that it gives a
good agreement with experimental
result.
Some values of α
for metals are listed in Table
26-5 Ohm’s Law
Figure (a) shows how to distinguish among devices. A
potential difference V is applied across the device being
tested, and the resulting current i through the device is
measured as V is varied in both magnitude and polarity.
Figure (b) is a plot of i versus V for one device. This plot
is a straight line passing through the origin, so the ratio
i/V (which is the slope of the straight line) is the same for
all values of V. This means that the resistance R = V/i of
the device is independent of the magnitude and polarity
of the applied potential difference V.
Figure (c) is a plot for another conducting device. Current
can exist in this device only when the polarity of V is
positive and the applied potential difference is more than
about 1.5 V. When current does exist, the relation
between i and V is not linear; it depends on the value of
the applied potential difference V.
.
26-5 Ohm’s Law
If the device obeys Ohm's law,
the ratio of
should be
same for each observation.
Answer: Device 2 does not follow ohm’s law.
’
26-7 Power in Electric Circuits
Consider a circuit with a battery maintaining potential
difference V across the terminals a and b of a device.
The device could be a motor, a lamp or any
resistor.
Potential
at terminal a is greater than potential at
terminal b. Therefore potential difference ΔV across the
terminal is negative
.
26-7 Power in Electric Circuits
The principle of conservation of energy tells us that the decrease in electric
potential energy from a to b is accompanied by a transfer of energy to some other
form. The power P associated with that transfer is the rate of transfer
P = dU /dt
This energy is delivered by the circuit to the device in time dt, as per definition of
power the power P delivered by the battery to the device.
26-7 Power in Electric Circuits
If the device is a resistance R, the power delivered can be written as
Or
SI Units for power are Ampere * Volt = Watt, Symbol "W"
The power delivered to a resistive
load is given as.
(a) and (b) tie, then (d), then (c)
Homework
Chapter 26: Current and Resistance
7-17- 42
Page 700 - 702
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Reference :
Fundamentals of PHYSICS, 9th edition, by HALLIDAY/ RESNICK/ WALKER