Transcript Языки мира

Indo-European languages of the
area
 Aryan
 Nuristani

Kati
 Indo-Iranian



Dardic
 Kashmiri…
Iranian
 Persian (Farsi, Dari, Tajiki), Kurdish languages, Balochi,
Pashto…
Indo-Aryan
Iranian languages
Iranian languages
Wikipedia.org
South Asia
Карта: Matthew Dryer
South Asia as a linguistic area
 Dravidian
 Indo-European
 Indo-Aryan
 Iranian (areal periphery)
 Dardic
 Nuristani
 Sino-Tibetan (areal periphery)
 Austroasiatic (areal periphery): Munda
 Burushaski
Languages of India
 1991 Census of India:
 114 languages
< 1,576 mother tongues (with more than 10,000
speakers)
+ 1,796 “unclassified” mother tongues
 The largest languages:
 Hindustani: Hindi (> 260 mln), Urdu (> 63 mln.)
 Bangla (> 193 mln.), Gujarati (> 46 mln.),
 Dravidian: Telugu (> 74 mln.), Tamil (> 68 mln.) ,
Kannada(> 37 mln.), Malayalam (> 33 mln.)
South Asia as a linguistic area
 Colin Masica:
 Retroflex consonants
 Postpositions, OV, Adj N
 Ideophones, echo-reduplication
 “Dative subjects”
Hindi
(Bhatt 2003)
 Quotatives: specific complementizers introducing direct
speech (< forms of the verb ‘say’)
History: Iranian languages
 Old Iranian
 Avestan
beginning of the
1 millenium BCE
 Old Persian
6-4c BCE …
 Middle Iranian
4c BC – 1 millenium AD
 Middle Persian (Pahlavi),
Sogdian, Parthian, …
 New Iranian
History: Indo-Aryan languages
 Old Indo-Aryan
 Vedic Sanskrit
mid 2nd millennium – 3-2c BCE
 Classical Sanskrit
mid 1st millennium BCE, Panini
 Indian epic poetry
3-2c BCE: Ramayana, Mahabharata
 Middle Indo-Aryan
 Prakrits, Pali, Apabhraṃśa (mainly the 1st millennium
AD)
 New Indo-Aryan
sanskritweb.net
General tendencies
 From synthetic languages to analytic languages




(postpositions, etc)
From fusion to agglutination
From VO to OV
From accusative alignment to split accusative/ergative
alignment
Originally dependent marking, later pronominal clitics akin
to head marking
General tendencies
These tendencies are not found everywhere, though.
 Dravidian lgs are more or less synthetic
 In India more analytic languages are located in the eastern
part
 Kashmiri: the usual order is SVO
Complex predicates /
compound verbs
 Predicates normally consist of two (or more parts).
 Persian (Karimi 2008)
Persian only has about 130
simplex verbs.
(Cf. the same picture in
East Caucasian.)
 Urdu
(Butt 2005)
Complex predicates
 “Lexical verb” + Light verb (which contains the
grammatical information).
 Monoclausality: Complex predicates do not constitute
several clauses.
 Probably “complex predicates” is an umbrella term for
a number of more or less different phenomena.
Case systems
 In many modern Indo-Iranian languages, case systems
are considerably reduced (up to 2-3 cases).
 The borderline between cases and postpositions is not
always obvious.
Hindi: Basic cases Nom & Obl vs “Secondary”
cases/postpositions (Erg, Gen, Dat/Acc, Abl/Instr etc.)
Dravidian languages: Many markers treated as locative
cases in some descriptions are thought to be
postpositions in other descriptions.
Partial ergativity
 In many Iranian, Indo-Aryan and Dardic languages,
one observes ergative alignment in past tense (or in
(some) past tenses). (Haig 2008: 12)
Частичная эргативность
 15 июня 2012 г.
Приступили к эргативу. Это, доложу я вам, волшебная
вещь в хинди, одна из тех, что глубоко трогают русскую
душу и что-то проясняют про душу хиндийскую. (…) Так
вот меня тронуло этакая скромная позиция субъекта. Не
субъект что-то сделал, увидел, сказал, а это с ним
произошло, объект как-то ему позволил с собой вступить
в контакт. Что-то такое про принятие судьбы, что ли,
принятие жизни как чего-то происходящего с тобой, а не
просто сделанного тобой.
У А.Ф.Лосева есть статья про эргатив, но в жару лень
читать сложное, потом как-нибудь.
hitrovka-studio.ru «Как я изучала хинди»
Partial ergativity
In fact, in Hindi in past tense (de Hoop & Narasumhan
2008)…
 ergative marker is found on the most volitional agents
 ergative clitic marks volitionality even with some
intransitive verbs:
… on a par with DOM
In many Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages the
specific/referential patient takes peculiar marking.
Hindi (de Hoop & Narasumhan 2008)
NB: =ko is the dative postposition
Iranian languages: word order
Don Stilo:
 Many Iranian languages violate statistical universals
related to word order and differ between each other
 For example, basically OV but
Iranian languages: word order
 Possible explanation: Iranian languages as a “buffer
zone” between left-branching languages (e.g., Turkic)
and right-branching languages (e.g., Arabic).
 Possible remarkable consequence: circumpositions (fit
into any branching tendencies).
Kurdish (McCarus 2009):
Iranian languages: ezafe
 Primarily in Western Iranian, there is a specific marker which
links the head and the attribute (adjective, possessor,
sometimes relative clause)
Persian (Kahnemuyipour 2006)
mard-e châq
‘fat man'
man-Ez fat
 Head marking? Or not? (Ezafe occurs immediately before the
attribute, not necessarily on the head). Cp. Zaza Kurdish
[láz-
mьn]-o
pil
‘my elder son’
son-EZF.POS.M 1SG:OBL-EZF.ATR.M elder
(Smirnova, Ejubi 1998: 35)
South Asia: causatives
 Some languages distinguish between direct and
indirect causatives.
 Hindi (Bhatt 2003):
 Direct (contact) causative:
 Indirect (distant) causative:
South Asia: ideophones
 Dravidian languages: Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu