Transcript Document

Ch. 2: Phrase Structure
• Syntactic Structure (basic concepts)
 A tree diagram marks constituents hierarchically
S
NP
Ali





AUX
VP
will
V
NP
help
D N
the man
A node is any point in the tree diagram and it can be:
Branching node like S and lower NP.
Non-branching node like AUX and V.
Terminal nodes: lexical items at end of tree like help
Nodes are related to each other by two relations:
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Dominance:

A node X dominates node Y if:
X is higher than Y and X is connected to Y by a branch.
For example, NP dominates Ali, VP dominates D and NP.

Immediate dominance:
A node immediately dominates another if there’s no intervening
node. e.g. S immediately dominates NP, AUX, VP but not help.
2.
Precedence:

A node X precedes Y if it is on the left and both aren’t
dominating each other. e.g. Ali precedes will, but the doesn’t
precede man.
1.
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•
Phrase Structure Rules
These rules derive different types of phrases and unlimited
number of sentences:
NP (D) (AdjP) N
This rule cannot predict the structure of the phrase and we
need to memorize infinite number of rules.
• The Structure of Phrases
1. VP: It consists of
- lexical category: head V
- Phrasal category or maximal projection: VP as a whole
- Intermediate category: V’ (part of VP)
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•
V’

V’ is a level that contains the object and verb’s modifiers:

The head verb (and its object if there is one) is in the lowest V’ level

The verb’s modifiers are placed in higher V’ levels, called adjunct

Subject combines with highest V’ level, i.e. specifier of VP
For example: they eat lunch in school tonight
VP
spec V’
they V’
V’
V
eat
NP
NP
PP tonight
in school
lunch
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•

Evidence for V’
V’ is a constituent structure that can be replaced by do so:
- They eat lunch in school tonight and Ali does so. (eat lunch in school tonight)
They eat lunch in school tonight and Ali did so this morning. (eat lunch in school)
They eat lunch in school tonight and Ali does so at work this morning. (eat lunch)
 adjuncts are recursive, i.e. repeatedly added.
2. NP

N’ is a level that contains the object and noun’s modifiers:

The head noun (and its object if there is one) is in the lowest N’ level

The noun’s modifiers are placed in higher N’ levels, called adjunct
The determiner combines with the highest N’, i.e. specifier of VP
For example, the big book of poems with the blue cover

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NP
Det
the
N’ 1
N’2
AP
N’3
PP
big N
PP
with blue cover
book of poems
•
Evidence for N’
 N’ is a constituent structure that can be replaced by one:
- I want this [big book of poems with the blue cover] not that one (N’1)
- I want this big [book of poems with the blue cover] not that small one (N’2)
- I want this big [book of poems] with the blue cover not that small one with
the red cover (N’3)
3. AdjP & PP
We apply the same structure to these phrases:
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He is [quite jealous of Ali].
He stood [right across the bridge]
 The lowest P’ and adj’ includes these heads (and their complements).
 The spec combines with P’ and adj’ and is placed by modifiers (like quite,
very, rather, so …for the adj and straight, right for the prep).
•
General structure (x-bar)
 We can have these general rules that exactly predict the structure of
different types of phrases:
XP spec X’ (specifier)
X’
X YP (head and complement)
X’
X’ YP (adjunct= modifier)
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•
Sentence structure
 Aux is the head of the sentence because it carries
tense and agreement:
They are working hard.
But what about non-auxiliary verbs: They worked hard
Aux is the head even though it isn’t overt.
 Evidence for aux as head of sentence:
1. Cleft sentence: work hard, they did indeed.
The tense is on aux and not part of VP.
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2. Pseudo-cleft: what they did was work hard.
Tense is part of a node, Infl(ection), which can be filled
with overt aux or left empty.
s
NP I
VP
+tense
+agr

I is finite because it has (+t, +agr).
 Infinitive clause: I ask [Ali to work hard]
To is the head of the infin clause and it’s -t, -agr , non-finite I
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
The structure of IP
IP
NP I’
I VP
will V’
-ed V
NP
to finish the work
IP spec I’
I’ I VP
VP is always a complement of I.
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
IP is a functional category, not a lexical category,
because it is used for grammatical function: t, agr
• Complementizer phrase (CP)
 CP is another functional category since its head, c,
introduces a subordinate clause:
 C= that, for [-wh]
if, whether [+wh]
I believe [that Ali will work hard].
I want [for Ali to work hard].
I wonder [if/whether Ali worked hard].
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
The above CP clauses have the following structure:
CP
spec
C’
C IP
Ali will worked hard
- IP is always the complement of C.
- C is filled by that, for and moved will, forming yes/no question:
CP
spec
C
will
[+wh]
C’
IP
NP
I’
Ali
I VP
work hard
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C can be filled by either will or that, not both
- Spec is filled by whether, if and wh-questions:
-
CP
spec
when
C’
C
will
IP
NP
Ali
I’
I VP
work hard
Structure of CP:
CP Spec C’
C’ C IP

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