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Grammar Review A Review of Some of the Most Important Grammatical Terms and Concepts The Sign Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) said that language is a system of signs. The Sign, Part 2 By sign, he meant the combination of a concept and a sound-image. For example, the sign for “door” consists of a connection between the sounds that make up the word “door” (which is its sound-image) and the concept of a door (its definition). Parts of Speech The signs that make up the English language are divided into categories based on the function of those signs; these categories are the parts of speech. Parts of Speech, Part 2 Nouns name persons, places, things, or ideas. Pronouns take the place of nouns. Verbs show action or a state of being. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Prepositions relate one object to another. Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses. Interjections show excitement and emotion. Coordination and Subordination Of particular grammatical importance is the difference between coordinating signs and subordinating signs. Coordination and Subordination, Part 2 Coordinating Signs 1) Coordinating Conjunctions (Complete list) and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet 2) Conjunctive Adverbs (Sample List) also, anyway, besides, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore Coordination and Subordination, Part 3 Subordinating Signs 1) Subordinating Conjunctions (Sample List) after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, so that, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while, why 2) Relative Pronouns (Sample List) that, what, which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose Clauses and Phrases Another important grammatical concept is the distinction Examples of subordination: between clauses and phrases. 1) When Bob went into town, he went to the bank. Examples of coordination: 1) The painting was done in red, white, and black. 2) John was going to eat lunch, but he decided to go out to eat. 2) I f eel that blue is the best color to paint a house. Clauses and Phrases, Part 2 Phrases do not have a subject and verb that agree. Clauses have subjects and verbs that agree. If that clause expresses a complete thought, it is a main (or independent) clause If not, it is a subordinate clause. The Sentence A final fundamental concept in grammar is the concept of the sentence. Tradition dictates that academic and formal writing be in complete sentences, to avoid potential misunderstandings. Requirements for a Sentence 1) A sentence must have a subject and verb that agree. 2) A sentence must also express a complete thought. There are four types of sentences. Simple sentences have one main clause. Compound sentences have two or more main clauses. Complex sentences have one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Compound-complex sentences have two main clauses and one subordinate. Compound Sentences There are three correct ways to join two main clauses in a compound sentence. An error in joining main clauses in a compound sentence usually results in either a run on sentence or a comma splice. Three Correct Compound Sentences Bill went to town, and he ate lunch at Taco Bell. (A comma and a coordinating conjunction are used to join the two main clauses). Bill went to town for lunch; however, he could not eat at Taco Bell. (Semi-colon plus conjunctive adverb plus comma) Bill went to town; he ate lunch at Taco Bell. (semi-colon) Comma Splices A comma splice is an attempt to join two main clauses with only a comma. CS: Bill went to town, he ate lunch at Taco Bell. Correct: Bill went to town; he ate lunch at Taco Bell. Run On Sentences A run on sentence is an attempt to join two main clauses with no punctuation. RS: Bill went to town he ate lunch at Taco Bell. Correct: Bill went to town; he ate lunch at Taco Bell. Complex Sentences The punctuation in a complex sentence is determined by two items: – Placement of the subordinate clause in relation to the main clause. – Whether or not the subordinate clause is an essential, restrictive clause. Placement of Subordinate Clause If the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, it is joined to the main clause with a comma. Example: When Bill went to town, he ate lunch at Taco Bell. Restrictive Clauses If the subordinate clause is essential (is a restrictive clause), then no punctuation is used to join that clause to the main clause. If the subordinate clause is not essential (is not a restrictive clause), then a comma is used to join that clause to the main clause. Examples Restrictive The students who passed the test were happy. The coach who was a graduate of NC State quit his job. Non-restrictive The students, who passed the test, were happy. The coach, who was a graduate of NC State, quit his job.