Transcript LTM - Dr. Cindy Corritore

ITM 734
Human Factors in Information Systems
Ch. 6: Long Term Memory
Fall 2005
Cindy Corritore, Ph.D.
Creighton University
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LTM characteristics
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Slow but variable access speed
Permanent (little decay)
Infinite capacity
Retrieval depends on ….
 recency, expectations, similarity of
information, connectedness, rehearsal,
etc.
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Types of LTM
• Explicit and implicit
 conscious recollection, top-down
retrieval from multiple systems with
massive integration (E)
 unconscious recollection, bottom-up
from single system (I) – more automatic
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Types of LTM
• Episodic and semantic
 self-awareness component, things that
happen to you, complex (E)
 stuff we know, knowledge about the
world, relationships, implicit - dictionary,
thesaurus
 likely stored the same way
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Types of LTM
• Declarative and procedural
 knowing that, explicit primarily,
relationships, integration of information
(D) – knowing things and their
relationships
 knowing how, mostly implicit, not
relational – how to do things
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Memory structures for stories, events …
• Schema - framework that includes frames & scripts
 become chunks for expanding memory
 basis for expectations
• What is Bartlett’s Schema Theory?
 framework for stories that affects comprehension
 told American Indian stories, then recall  readjusted story elements and themes to fit their model
 laundry context (p 215) - calls up proper schema, fill in the
blanks, departures from normal
• Helps make it easier to recall, group information
• Experts have great, robust schema
• Theory to explain why recall unusual/unique things better?
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Everyday memory
• little studied
• appears to have a lot of variability
 eyewitness memory
 flashbulb memory
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Eye-witness memory
• Effects
 post-event memory - questioning right after the
fact can distort (retroactive interference)
 verbal overshadowing - talking about it right
after happens over-writes visual memory
 memory in the world sketchy (Normal)
 weapon focus
 confirmation bias - affected by what you expect
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Flash bulb memory
• what were you doing when heard about
911 disaster?
• Why is this theory felt to be inaccurate?
 not consistently or regularly found
• Richness …..
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Ericsson and Kintsch LT-WM
• postulate using LTM as sort of working memory
(STM) in areas of expertise
 able to use LTM for reliable storage and build fast
retrieval cues for fast recall
use it like an extension of STM
must be able to store into LTM very quickly (learned
skill for a narrow domain)
must be well-known so expert can anticipate degree to
which item will need to be recalled
– selective storage
associate info with retrieval cue (part of a retrieval
structure)
– so can go straight to the item
STM only has to hold one node of the structure
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LTM processes
• Storage
 rehearsal
• Retrieval
 Forgetting
 Recognition vs recall
 Frequency and recency effects
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Storage- Rehearsal
• Memorization involves storing the information and
one or more access paths
• Good memories are rich semantic networks with many
(unique) access paths
• Learning is aided by meaningfulness, structure,
familiarity and concreteness
• Active memorizing requires effort, motivation
• Passive memorizing - unpredictable, often episodic,
context sensitive
• Similar items interfere if they are not separated during
memorizing - learning transfer effects - old interfere
with new; new overwrite old
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Facilitating Memorization
• Structure information to help chunking - use
categories, ordering, associations
• Encourage reasoning during memorizing active memory
• Help access by multiple pathways memorizing tricks e.g. keywords, cognitive
aids, mnemonics, link to image memory
(rooms)
• Make associations clear and keep them
consistent
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Facilitating Memorization
• Make separate and recognizable contexts for
recall - important for script / skill memory
• Increase depth of encoding
 Richness
 Visualization
 Uniqueness
 Interaction
Old chinese proverb:
• Recognition
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Visualization & memory example
improve your memory exercise – memory
pegs
1 bun
6 sticks
2 shoe
7 heaven
3 tree
8 gate
4 door
9 wine
5 hive
10 hen
Dix et al.
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Facilitating Memorization:
Mnemonics
• cognitive mnemonics
 ABC’s with tune
 on old olympus mountain tops a finn
and german viewed some hops (12
crainial nerves: OOOMTAFAGVSH)
seems
to be more to remember?
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Facilitating Memorization:
Mnemonics
• check out:
http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/tutorials/index.html
• mnemonic for Norman principles:
visibility, feedback, cognitive model, affordance, mapping
My fat cat ate veggies
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Retrieval - Theories of forgetting
• repression (Freud) - bad experience
• interference (proactive or retroactive)
previous learning/memories interrupt
– espc if similar stimuli – belong to same category
– eye-witness and post-incident questioning
doesn’t explain how it works
• cue-dependant
 forget because info not there anymore or *can’t
access it
 encoding specificity principle (cue-dependant)
retrieval a func. of overlap between information
present at retrieval and info stored in memory
– includes contextual info
Recognition dependant on internal cues only
(not external context)
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Recall vs. recognition
• Knowledge in the World Theory is GUI’s - Alan Kay developed
in 1960’s
 Steve Jobs in late 1970’s from Xerox Parc
 keep knowledge in world to supplement head knowledge
 recall vs. recognition
 remember just enough detail to get by
 exceptions
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rather then norms
experts not expert in knowledge in the head as much as expert in
how to locate needed knowledge in the world
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Design implications
• Reduce cognitive load!!!
• Type of user
 novice, expert, intermittent user
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Design implications
• Mental models natural extensions of schema support schemas
 metaphors - desktop/office
 match system information structure with familiar
memory structures so user can use their schema
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Design implications
• Design interfaces that help users ‘grow’ good
mental models
 meaningful and familiar command names (eg. from
task world)
 balance this with existing conceptual models of item
names (ie. cut, copy)
• Incorporate closure (finish) on tasks
 helps build mental model
 helps identify chunks for memory when become an
expert
• Consistency - to build mental model; don’t have to
remember as much
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Design implications
• Rich encoding  multimedia
 interaction
 context?
• May just be to ‘remember your site’
 http://www.pulse3d.com/pulse/
 http://www.jordans.com/roomplanner.asp
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Design implications
• Focus on recognition rather than recall
 interface contains prompts/information
 studies on computer experts found they
don’t have better recall, but high
recognition of what is and isn’t available
on interface and where to find it (maps)
 GUI’s combination of recognition
(menu’s) and recall (quick keys)
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Design implications
• Place the burden of remembering on
the machine, not the human
• Don’t require user memory (eg. between
screens)
• Don’t have computer ask for info it can
derive
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Design implications
• Design minor messages, alerts, warning
to be minimally disruptive
 prevent user from forgetting data stored
in short term memory
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readings
• Lagerkvist – Mnemonic interfaces
 brain map
• Fass et al – Messy Desk
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readings
• Attention and memory (last week)
 Horvitz et al – Models of Attention
 Brudisch et al – Considering Attention
 Shell et al – ECSGlasses and Pliances
 Vertegaal et al – Attentive Cell Phones
 Lewis et al – VisualID’s
 Oulasvirta
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Evaluate these
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http://happydeluxe.com/
http://www.google.com vs http://www.yahoo.com
http://www.northcantonmedical.org/
http://www.enchantedharp.com/
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