Transcript Lecture Powerpoin: Ch. 7

THIRD EDITION
PSYCHOLOGY
from inquiry to understanding
CHAPTER
7
Memory
CONSTRUCTING AND
RECONSTRUCTING OUR PASTS
Slides prepared by Matthew Isaak
Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives
LO 7.1
LO 7.2
LO 7.3
LO 7.4
LO 7.5
Identify the ways that memories do and
don't accurately reflect experiences.
Explain the function, span, and duration of
each of the three memory systems.
Differentiate the subtypes of long-term
memory.
Identify methods for connecting new
information to existing knowledge.
Identify the role that schemas play in the
storage of memories.
Understanding Psychology: from Inquiry to Understanding, Third Edition
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Learning Objectives
LO 7.6
LO 7.7
Distinguish ways of measuring memory.
Describe how the relation between
encoding and retrieval conditions
influences remembering.
LO 7.8 Describe the role of long-term potentiation
in memory.
LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and
the relevance of amnesia to the brain's
organization of memory.
LO 7.10 Identify the key impairments of
Alzheimer's disease.
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Learning Objectives
LO 7.11 Identify how children's memory abilities
change with age.
LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's
susceptibility to false memories and
memory errors.
LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world
implications of false memories and
memory errors.
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Lecture Preview
•
•
•
•
•
How memory operates
The three processes of memory
Biology of memory
Development of memory
False memories
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Memory
LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences.
• The retention of information over time
• Our memories are surprisingly good in
some situations, and surprisingly bad in
others.
– The paradox of memory
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Paradox of Memory
LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences.
• The same mechanisms that serve us
well most of the time can sometimes
cause us problems.
• Amazing feats of memory
– Kim Peek, the real "Rain Man"
– Rajan and pi
• But memory is also surprisingly
malleable.
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Put down your pen and read these lists:
LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences.
Sour
Honey
Bitter
Heart
Tooth
Nice
Sugar
Chocolate
Taste
Tart
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Candy
Soda
Good
Cake
Pie
Write down all the words you can
remember.
LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences.
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Paradox of Memory
LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences.
• Did you include the word "sweet"?
• If so, this is a memory illusion.
• Our brains will often go beyond the
available information to make sense of
the world.
– Generally adaptive, but makes us prone
to errors
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Reconstructive Memory
LO 7.1 Identify the ways that memories do and don't accurately reflect experiences.
• When remembering, we actively
reconstruct memories, not passively
reproduce them.
• When you remember yourself taking a
walk, you see yourself as an observer
would.
• How can we explain this?
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Three Systems of Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Sensory, short-term, and long-term
memory
• Differ in terms of span and duration
• Information moves from sensory to
STM to LTM, and then back to STM
when it is retrieved.
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Figure 7.2 The Three-Memory Model. This model subdivides memory into sensory, short-term, and longterm memory. Information flows from left to right, but also from right to left in the case of information retrieved
from long-term memory and moved into short-term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).
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Sensory Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Brief storage of perceptual information
before it is passed to short-term
memory
• Each sense has its own form of sensory
memory.
• Iconic (visual) lasts only 1 second;
echoic (auditory) can last 5-10
seconds.
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Short-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Memory system that retains
information for limited durations
• Closely related to working memory
• Brief in duration; 5-20 seconds
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Short-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• We can lose information in our STM due
to two different processes:
– Decay – information fades over time
– Interference – loss of information due
to competition with new, incoming
information
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Types of Interference
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Retroactive interference happens
when learning new information
hampers memory for earlier learning.
• Proactive interference happens when
earlier learning gets in the way of new
learning.
• Both are more likely to occur when old
and new stimuli are similar.
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Short-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• The span of STM in adults is 7 + 2
pieces of information: the Magic
Number 7.
• Can extend our STM span by chunking
– organizing information into
meaningful groups
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Short-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
KACFJNABISBCFUI
vs.
CIAUSAFBINBCJFK
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Short-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Rehearsal, repeating information in
STM, extends its duration.
• Maintenance rehearsal is simply
repeating STM information in its
original form.
• Elaborative rehearsal is forming
meaningful links among STM material.
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Short-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Elaborative rehearsal is usually more
effective, consistent with levels-ofprocessing model.
• Three levels: visual, phonological
(sound-related), and semantic
(meaning-related)
• Visual is the most shallow; phonological
somewhat less shallow; and semantic
the deepest.
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Long-term Memory
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Relatively enduring store of information
• Includes facts, experiences, and skills
we've developed over a lifetime
• Differs from STM in several ways
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LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Capacity is…
7-9 stimuli
Virtually unlimited
Duration is…
20 seconds at most
Decades to permastore
Mistakes are…
Acoustic
Semantic
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Figure 7.6 Long Term Memory Retention. The classic work of Harry Bahrick (1984) shows that retention of
a foreign language remains remarkably constant for spans of almost 50 years after an initial drop. (Source:
Adapted from Bahrick, 1984, Figure 3)
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Primacy and Recency Effects
LO 7.2 Explain the function, span, and duration of each of the three memory systems.
• Primacy effect – tendency to
remember stimuli presented earliest
(now in LTM)
• Recency effect – tendency to
remember stimuli that presented most
recently (still in STM)
• Also more likely to remember stimuli
that are odd or distinctive
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Figure 7.7 The Serial Position Curve. Most psychologists believe that the primacy and recency effects in this
curve are the telltale signs of two different memory systems: long-term and short-term memory, respectively.
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Types of LTM
LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
• Explicit memory is the process of
recalling information intentionally.
• Divided into:
– Semantic memory (knowledge of
facts)
– Episodic memory (events in our lives)
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LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
Read this list of words to yourself:
House
Throw
Sleep
Queen
Tires
Guitar
Swim
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Types of Long-Term Memory
LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
• Implicit memory is recalling
information that we don't remember
deliberately.
– Unlocking our front door
– Tying our shoelaces
• Includes habituation, classical
conditioning, and other forms of
learning
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Types of Implicit Memory
LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
• Procedural memory refers to motor
skills and habits.
– Riding a bicycle, touch typing
• Priming is our ability to identify a
stimulus more easily or quickly after
we've encountered similar stimuli.
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LO 7.3 Differentiate the subtypes of long-term memory.
Fill in the blanks:
K___
Remember "Queen" from the word list? If you filled
in "KING", you demonstrated a priming effect.
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Figure 7.8
The Many Subtypes of Memory. A summary of the subtypes of explicit and implicit memory.
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Three Processes of Memory
LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge.
• Encoding is getting information into
memory.
• Storage is keeping information in
memory.
• Retrieval is the reactivation or
reconstruction of information from
memory.
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Figure 7.9 The Three Processes of Memory. The process of remembering is similar in some ways to the
process of filing and fetching a library book.
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Encoding
LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge.
• To encode material, we must first
attend to it.
• Most events we experience are never
encoded in the first place.
• The next-in-line effect and memory
for common objects
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Figure 7.10 Penny Array from Nickerson and Adams. Which of these pennies is the real one? Try to
guess before pulling one out of your pocket. (Source: Based on Nickerson & Adams, 1979)
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Mnemonics
LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge.
• Mnemonics are learning aids that
enhance recall.
– Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
– Every Good Boy Does Fine
• While applicable to almost anything,
they depend on existing knowledge
store.
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Types of Mnemonics
LO 7.4 Identify methods for connecting new information to existing knowledge.
• Pegword method (uses rhyming)
• Method of loci (place imagery)
• Keyword method (language learning,
reminder words)
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Storage
LO 7.5 Identify the role that schemas play in the storage of memories.
• How we store our experiences in
memory depends on our interpretations
and expectations of them.
• Schemas are organized knowledge
structures or mental models that we've
stored in memory.
– What happens when you go to a
restaurant?
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Storage
LO 7.5 Identify the role that schemas play in the storage of memories.
• Schemas give us frames of reference
and allow us to interpret new
situations.
• Useful, but tend to oversimplify
information
• Strong example of why the paradox of
memory exists
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Retrieval
LO 7.6 Distinguish ways of measuring memory.
• Many types of forgetting are failures of
retrieval.
• Using retrieval cues can help to
access information in long-term
memory.
• Measuring memory makes use of the "3
Rs."
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Measuring Memory
LO 7.6 Distinguish ways of measuring memory.
• Recall - generating previously
remembered information
• Recognition - selecting previously
remembered information from an array
of options
• Relearning - "savings"; how much
more quickly we reacquire something
learned before
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Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
LO 7.6 Distinguish ways of measuring memory.
• Retrieval failure where we are sure we
know the answer, but can't come up
with it
• When people believe that something is
on the tip of their tongue, they're
frequently right.
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Encoding Specificity
LO 7.7 Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences
remembering.
• We are more likely to remember
something when the conditions present
at the time we encoded it are also
present at retrieval.
• Two kinds: context-dependent
learning and state-dependent
learning
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Context-Dependent Learning
LO 7.7 Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences
remembering.
• Superior retrieval when the external
context of the original memories
matches the retrieval context
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Figure 7.13 Research Shows that the Word Learning of Scuba Divers Depends on Context. If the
divers learned words underwater, they recalled them best when underwater again (Godden & Baddely, 1975).
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State-Dependent Learning
LO 7.7 Describe how the relation between encoding and retrieval conditions influences
remembering.
• Superior retrieval of memories when
the organism is in the same
physiological or psychological state as it
was during encoding
• Can extend to mood-dependent
learning and the retrospective bias
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Biology of Memory
LO 7.8 Describe the role of long-term potentiation in memory.
• Memories of different types of
experiences are stored in different
brain regions.
• Long-term potentiation is the
gradual strengthening of the
connections among neurons from
repetitive stimulation.
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Biology of Memory
LO 7.8 Describe the role of long-term potentiation in memory.
• LTP plays a key role in learning;
hippocampus plays a key role in
forming memories
• There is, however, no engram.
– Memories are diffusely stored.
– "Neurons that fire together, wire
together."
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Amnesia
LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's
organization of memory.
• Most common types are retrograde
(loss of past memories) and
anterograde (loss of ability to make
new memories).
• Myths abound, but generalized amnesia
is very rare, as is sudden recovery of
memory.
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Case Studies of Amnesia
LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's
organization of memory.
• H. M.
– Had radical surgery to treat severe
epilepsy
– Chunks of temporal lobes, including
both hippocampi, were removed.
– Experienced mild retrograde and severe
anterograde amnesia
– Implicit memory was preserved.
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Case Studies of Amnesia
LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's
organization of memory.
• Clive Wearing
– Hippocampi were destroyed by a virus,
resulting in complete anterograde
amnesia
– Still shows priming effects, though.
– Bottom line: destroying hippocampus
leaves implicit memory intact.
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Emotional Memory
LO 7.9 Distinguish different types of amnesia and the relevance of amnesia to the brain's
organization of memory.
• The amygdala and hippocampus
interact to give us emotional memories.
• Amygdala helps recall emotions
associated with fearful events.
• Hippocampus helps us recall the events
themselves.
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Biology of Memory Deterioration
LO 7.10 Identify the key impairments of Alzheimer's disease.
• Memory usually begins to show some
declines after 65, but not always.
• Alzheimer's disease is the most
frequent cause of dementia (50-60%
of cases).
– Show memory and language losses,
consistent with cortical loss
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Figure 7.17 Changes in the Brain of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease. Changes include enlargement of
the ventricles and severe loss of the cortex in areas involved in language and memory. (Source: Courtesy of
Alzheimer's Disease Research, a program of the American Health Assistance Foundation)
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Alzheimer's Disease (AD)
LO 7.10 Identify the key impairments of Alzheimer's disease.
• Research shows that those with active
lifestyles are less likely to develop AD.
• Greater education and intellectual
activity are related to lower AD rates.
• Use it or lose it!
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Memory Over Time
LO 7.11 Identify how children's memory abilities change with age.
• Memory changes as we age, but
reflects the same basic processes
throughout life.
• Children's memories increase in
sophistication.
– Memory span increases with age (until
12).
– Increase in conceptual understanding
– Develop meta-memory skills
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Infantile Amnesia
LO 7.11 Identify how children's memory abilities change with age.
• Inability of adults to retrieve accurate
memories before 2-3 years old
• Hippocampus is only partially
developed in infants; lack of sense of
self
• No evidence for use of hypnotic age
regression or other techniques to
"beat" this
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False Memories
LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors.
• Our memories can be more fallible than
any of us could have imagined.
• Flashbulb memories are very vivid
and able to be recalled in detail much
later.
• But they change over time, and are
often inaccurate when compared to
initial memories.
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False Memories
LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors.
• Source monitoring confusion is a
lack of clarity about the origins of a
memory.
• Can cause numerous memory illusions,
including cryptoamnesia
– George Harrison and the Chiffons
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Implanting False Memories
LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors.
• Elizabeth Loftus' work on suggestive
memory techniques
• Smashed vs. hit cars, misleading
questions and the misinformation
effect
• "Lost in the mall" study and recalling
events that never happened
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Implanting False Memories
LO 7.12 Identify factors that influence people's susceptibility to false memories and memory errors.
• Event plausibility and recency can both
impact strength of false memories.
• Existence proofs show that it is possible
to create memories that are implausible
or impossible.
– Hot air balloon ride
– Bugs Bunny at Disney World
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From the Lab to the Real World
LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors.
• Weak correlation between eyewitness
confidence in their testimony and their
accuracy
• Less accurate when:
– Observing others of different race
– Witness has talked to other witnesses
– The observed situation is stressful (e.g.,
threatening, weapon involved)
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Suggestibility & Child Testimony
LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors.
• Children are highly vulnerable to
suggestions to recall events that did
not happen.
• Repeated questions about a topic make
it more likely that they will say it
happened.
• "Sam Stone" and the soiled teddy bear.
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False Memory Controversy
LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors.
• Repressing and then later recovering
memories of abuse with memory
recovery therapists
• Researchers find no evidence to
support these claims and say it is due
to suggestive techniques.
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Learning Tips
LO 7.13 Describe some of the real-world implications of false memories and memory errors.
MEMORY CONCEPT
POINTER
1) Distributed vs massed study
Spread your study time out.
2) Testing effect
Frequently test yourself on the
material you read.
3) Elaborative rehearsal
Connect new knowledge with existing
knowledge instead of memorizing.
4) Levels of processing
Work to process ideas deeply and
meaningfully.
5) Mnemonic devices
The more cues you can connect from
your knowledge to new material, the
better.
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