Transcript Action for students

A level Geography
Tectonic activity and hazards
PowerPoint presentation by
Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders (MSF)UK
Schools Team: Mary Doherty and Severa von Wentzel
March 2013
MSF
Geography Working Group
MSF would like to thank the members of the working group for
their contributions and help in developing these materials:
Janet Carlsson of Alleyn's School
Adam Thomas former MSF Logistician
Ed Jennings of Hayes School Bromley
John Lyon of the Geographical Association
Nicky Martin of Coloma Girls Convent School Croydon
Rick Vasconcellos of Acland Burghley School Camden
Jo Woolley of Dulwich College
2
This PowerPoint
• Tectonic Activity is presented as a PowerPoint
Presentation to facilitate use by teachers. The footer
on many slides includes Note for teachers.
• It is anticipated that teachers will use slide sorter and
select the slides appropriate to their students and their
specifications and develop a customised slideshow.
• For teaching and learning, view as a slide show to
benefit from animation
• When planning, teachers will find it helpful to start from
the normal view which shows the footers and the Note
for teachers.
• Teachers can click to videos, websites etc. directly
from the slides when in the slide show mode.
3
Guide to this
presentation
References to teaching specifications.
Definitions in violet
Action for students
Further info
Video
Direct quote
Key
Link to appendix
Back to contents Contents
Contents
4
Organisation of this
Presentation
.Presentation structure
PART I
Teaching specifications
Introduction
Your research and writing
Exemplar slides for your case studies
PART II
Section 1
Tectonic hazards and causes
Section 2
Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
Section 3
Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Section 4
Responses to tectonic hazards
Appendix
Further info (Hyperlink)
5
Contents
PART I
Organisation and guide to this presentation
Awarding body specifications
Your research, case studies and writing
Exemplar slides for your research
Starting your case studies
PART II - Section One
Tectonic hazards and causes
Event, hazard or disaster?
Defining tectonic events and hazards
Seismic waves
Primary and secondary effects of earthquakes
Plate tectonics, GPS
PART II - Section Two
Tectonic Hazards: Physical impacts
Event Profiles
Tectonic impacts
Mind map exercise
Physical factors
Human factors
Fault action
6
Contents (cont’d)
PART II - Section Three
Tectonic hazards: human impacts
Geophysical and hydro-meteorological hazards and trends
Why do people live in tectonically active areas?
Dregg’s Disaster Model
Disaster Risk Equation
Specific hazard impacts: human and economic costs
Exemplar table for your research: hazard impacts over time
Haiti (2010) Earthquake
Prediction
PART II - Section Four
Responses to tectonic hazards
Coping with tectonic hazard
Haiti housing crisis action
Insight into humanitarian work
The work of a MSF logistician
Cholera and GIS
Social Media
Disaster Risk Reduction
Early warning
Appendix
International humanitarian System
Further Info on Haiti
7
AQA Unit 3: Seismicity
The causes and main characteristics of earthquakes:
• focus and epicentre; seismic waves and earthquake
measurement.
• Tsunamis – characteristics and causes.
Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30 years)
seismic events should be undertaken from contrasting areas of
the world.
In each case, the following should be examined:
• the nature of the seismic hazard;
• the impact of the event;
• management of the hazard and responses to the event.
Contents
8
OCR A2 Geography:
Global issues
What are the hazards associated with earthquake and volcanic activity? Earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions are caused by plate tectonics and bring distinctive impacts to an area and these vary from place to
place.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have a range of environmental and social impacts on the areas
affected, which create a range of human responses to the hazard. The study of an earthquake and of a
volcanic eruption to illustrate the:
•
tectonic processes involved in creating these hazards;
•
scale and types of impacts (environmental, social and economic), together with the concept of primary
(initial impacts – destruction, casualties, landslides, fires) and secondary impacts (including disease,
infrastructure problems, resettlement);
•
human reaction in both the short term (emergency rescue) and long term (planning & management).
Why do the impacts on human activity of such hazards vary over time and location? The degree of impact
on an area reflects its level of economic and technological development as well as the population density.
Impacts can vary over time from immediate to long term. The study of contrasting examples to illustrate a:
•
contrast between countries at either end of the development continuum and between rural and urban
areas, to compare the impacts of, and reactions to, at least two contrasting types of earth hazards;
•
comparison of impacts over short and long time periods for at least two contrasting types of earth
hazards.
Contents
9
OCR A2 Geography:
Global issues
How can hazards be managed to reduce their impacts?
There are various ways to manage or reduce the impacts of hazards. The study of different approaches to
managing earth hazards to illustrate:
•
the extent to which earth hazards are predictable;
•
the management strategies used to reduce the possible impact of a hazard;
•
the effectiveness of managing earth hazards.
Key Concepts:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The nature of hazards varies with location.
The nature of hazards changes over time and space.
Earth hazards consist of a variety of interdependent and interconnected activities and processes.
Physical geography and human activity are interdependent and their interaction can produce hazards.
The impact of such hazards varies over time and given location.
Populations and environments respond in a variety of ways to hazards.
The management of hazards results in opportunities and challenges.
Associated Skills:
•
•
•
•
•
Research into hazard events
Analysis of a variety of types of image
Map work at a variety of scales, eg hazard mapping
Statistical analysis, eg analysing patterns and severity of hazard
Use and application of GIS and other modern technology, eg forecasting of earthquakes and eruptions
Contents
10
Assessment
objectives
.You will need to:
A01
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the content, concepts
and processes.
A02
Analyse, interpret and evaluate geographical information, issues and
viewpoints and apply understanding in unfamiliar contexts.
A03
Select and use variety of methods, skills and techniques (including
the use of new technologies) to investigate questions and issues,
reach conclusions and communicate findings.
Contents
11
Your research and writing
PART I
Contents
12
Synoptic research
unit with case studies
• This unit provides flexibility in your study of
geography.
• You will learn subject content and develop your
learning skills, particularly, selection and analytical
skills.
• You will study this unit for several months.*
• This is a synoptic unit that stresses the interrelation
of specific issues to overall themes in geography.
Contents
13
Edexcel global
synoptic content
Your investigation of tectonic hazards, challenges and
responses will need to highlight:
• Places, people and power
and
• Risks, vulnerability and patterns.
People
Places
Power
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by
Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.
http://www. hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
Contents
14
The synoptic element
of each enquiry question
Distil big concepts, implications and influences of tectonic activity
and geography by looking at social, economic, political and
environmental factors. These factors help organize and evaluate
information around people, places and power.
•
Social – about people, quality of life, health, education and prosperity
•
Economic – about money, work, industry, jobs and prospects
•
Political – about power, different viewpoints, policy and associated decisions
•
Environmental – about landscape, plants, animals, water, air and resources
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan
Updates.; http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
Contents
15
Synoptic content and
MEDCs and LEDCs
To compare and contrast case studies from MEDCs and LEDCs (more and
less economically developed countries), use pairs such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Positive and negative
Primary and secondary
Direct and indirect
Short and long term
Human and physical
Micro and macro
Further info on more and less economically developed countries – contrasts
in economic and human development, development indicators, statistics and
correlations and indices:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/development/contrasts_development_rev1.shtml
Source: Dunn, Cameron and Kim Adams, “A2 Geography Advice for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan
Updates.; http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
Contents
16
Your research
Action for students:
1. Start an “Earthquakes” folder for your research and
case studies.
2. Throughout your study extract the key information
about the tectonic event and retain the findings
and maps in your folder.
3. Remember to add references (sources) for the work
of others and to add definitions for key terms by
compiling a glossary of definitions in your folder.
Contents
17
Case studies in this
presentation
The Haiti Earthquake (2010) and Tohoku, Japan
Earthquake and Tsunami (2011) will be the main point
of comparison in your research.
Earthquakes such as Sichuan, China (2008),
L’Aquila, Italy (2009) and Van, Turkey (2011) also feature.
In this presentation exemplar slides in the introduction
and information for your research in subsequent sections
will guide you through the process, leaving the
active research and case studies to you.
Contents
18
Action for students:
Label the map to show Haiti,
Dominican Republic, major
towns and bodies of water
Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/special/caribout.htm
Contents
19
Action for students:
Label the map to show Japan, major towns, bodies of water and neighbouring countries.
Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/caribb/special/caribout.htm
Contents
20
Your study, research,
written notes and examination
Action for students:
Writing skills:
• Plan and stick to your organisation
with introduction, main body and
conclusion linking back to
the question.
• Apply theories, models and graphs,
for example, event profiles.
• Include good definitions and sources.
Further info:
The Geographical Association’s
“A2 Examinations: Developing your skills
in extended writing”
http://www.slideserve.com/elsa/a2-examinations-developing-your-skillsin-extended-writing
Do not describe only. Be clear what the
command words expect you to do:
•
Discuss
•
Evaluate
•
Critically examine
You will need to include:
•
Role of plate margins
•
Causes, maps and case studies
•
Impacts on landscape
•
Impacts on people
•
Responses and issues
Get to know key words:
•
Factors
•
Impacts
•
Challenges
Dunn, C. and K. Adams’ “A2 Geography Advice
for students” endorsed by Edexcel, Phillip Allan Updates.
http://www.hodderplus.co.uk/philipallan/pdfs/Edexcel-A2-Geography-9780340949542.pdf
Contents
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Sources
• Who is the author? How does the author’s role or job such as
academic, lobbyist, businessman, politician relate to the
topic? Consider North Korea and Amnesty International
presenting on the same issue, for example.
• Is it a primary or secondary source? How reliable is it?
• Does the website verify what it publishes or is it an open
forum where anything can be posted? Who owns and
contributes to it?
• Is the information up to date?
Contents
22
Question statistics
• Who collected the numbers? Using what method and for what
reason?
• Simply because they are published doesn’t make them facts.
Many are actually estimates.
• Location matters. Collecting statistics in remote rural areas of
developing countries or densely populated urban settlements, for
example, can be difficult if they have been collected at all. A
hazard or disaster event adds complexity.
• Numbers can be political. There may advantages to overstating
or understating numbers.
• Statistics need to be collected in the same way to be compared.
Contents
23
Schemata for
report writing
Your report
Defining
Introducing, defining topic
Research
Research and methodology
Analysis
Analysis, application, understanding
Conclusion
Conclusion and evaluation
Quality
Quality of written expression and sourcing
Contents
24
Humanitarian
information
Médecins Sans Frontières works in and Relief Web and Alert.net report on many
emergencies, including ignored or forgotten ones.
Médecins Sans Frontières / Doctors Without Borders: http://www.msf.org.uk
MSF is an independent international medical humanitarian organisation that
provides emergency aid in more than 60 countries to people affected
by armed conflict, epidemics, natural or man-made disasters or
exclusion from healthcare.
Reliefweb: http://www.reliefweb.int
“ReliefWeb is…source for timely, reliable and relevant humanitarian information
and analysis…to help you make sense of humanitarian
crises worldwide.”(reliefweb.int)
Alert.net: http://www.trust.org/alertnet/
Humanitarian news website covering crises worldwide, including “hidden crises”
Contents
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Exemplar slides for your research
PART I
Contents
26
Exemplar Slide on seismicity
past to present:
Historical seismicity in Japan
March 2011
Since 1900
The earthquake on March 11, 2011,
marked with a
, took place
around the same location as the
the magnitude 7.2 earthquake on March 9,
2011, thus the earlier one was
redefined as a foreshock. In the
cluster, there were 3 earthquakes
greater than magnitude 6 before the
main shock and another 14 in the
first 6 hours after. The aftershocks
intensity decreased with time since
the main shock and followed a
predictable pattern.
Further info on a detailed USGS poster on
“Seismicity of the Earth 1900—2007, Japan and Vicinity”
click on: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/d/
27
Earthquake Location:
Coordinates for Tohoku, Japan (2011)
Location:
130 km (80
miles) east of
Sendai,
Honshu,
Japan and
373 km (231
miles)
northeast of
Tokyo,
Japan.
Source: USGS
Contents
28
Exemplar Country Profile:
Japan (2011)
Country profile:
• Island nation in East Asia in the Pacific
Ocean
• Third largest economy in the world
• Politically stable with world-class critical infrastructure: physical
assets that serve as foundation for effective governance*, economy
and civil society.
• Capital: Tokyo
• Population: 126.5 million (UN, 2011)
• Very high life expectancy at birth, one of the oldest populations in
the world (CIA World Factbook)
• Most structures built to resist earthquake shaking
*
Governance: security, civil service, public management, core
infrastructure, corruption and legal and regulatory reforms.
Contents
29
Exemplar Template:
Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
Date and time: Friday, 11 March 2011 at 5:46 UTC*
Location: Japan, near northeast coast of Honshu
Epicentre: 130km east of Sendai
Magnitude: 9.0 on Richter scale
Speed of Onset: Foreshocks
and rapid main shock, aftershocks
Duration: Short
Areal extent: Extremely large area
Map: USGS summary map on following slide
Plates: Pacific plate subducting under Eurasian plate.
Subduction zone very seismically active. Convergent
margin, fairly high convergence rate. Earthquake
shallow at the Japan trench.
Earthquake: 4th largest in the world since 1900 and
largest in Japan since recording began 130 years ago
(USGS)
History of Earthquakes: Japan trench
subduction zone has had 9 events 7+ on the
scale since 1973. 20% of world’s earthquakes
take place in Japan.
*Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) – primary time standard by
which the world regulates clocks and time, closely related
successors to Greenwich (GMT) mean time and for most purposes
synonymous with GMT. Unlike GMT, UTC is precisely scientifically
defined.
Risk profile: Country ranked
1st worldwide for human and
economic exposure to cyclones
and earthquakes, 1st (economic)
and 2nd (human) for tsunamis and
very high for drought, flood
and landslides (Prevention web)
Key points: Tsunami, Fujinuma
dam ruptured, Fukushima Daichii
nuclear accident.
References:
IRIS:http://www.iris.edu/news/events/japan2011/
BBC:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific
14918801
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific
12711226
Prevention web:
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/st
tistics/risk.php?iso=jpn
Contents
30
Annotated images:
Tohoku, Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
Burning oil refinery in Ichihara,
Chiba Prefecture.
New York Times
Some of the burning houses swallowed by
tsunami in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture in eastern
Japan.
Los Angeles Times
31
Offset ocean floor
causes tsunami waves
AP
Waves crashes over Natori,
Miyagi Prefecture.
Water and debris washed
away houses in Sendai,
Miyagi Prefecture.
New York Times
Contents
32
Starting your case studies
PART I
Contents
33
Starting your
Haiti case study
Action for students:
Using the websites on the following slides:
1. Develop a template similar to the Japanese exemplar
slides for your section on Haiti.
2. Haiti is situated near to two tectonic plates: record for
your research the names of the plates and explain
how these plates caused the earthquake.
3. Draw a sketch of Haiti’s location and the two plates.
Contents
34
Haiti’s country profile
and tectonics
COUNTRY PROFILE:
•
CIA World Factbook
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fthe-worldfactbook%2Fgeos%2Fha.html&ei=UTF-8&fr=moz35
(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html)
•
UNICEF Statistics
http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/haiti_statistics.html
•
BBC Country Profile http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1202772.stm
HAITI TECTONICS:
•
“The Haiti Earthquake in Depth” http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100113/full/news.2010.10.html
•
“Anatomy of a Caribbean Earthquake” http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122531261
•
“Tectonics of the Haitian Earthquake” http://all-geo.org/highlyallochthonous/2010/01/tectonics-of-the-haitianearthquake/
•
BBC map: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8466385.stm
Contents
35
USGS
summary posters
Action for students:
USGS Summary Poster
Print out the USGS summary
posters for Japan and Haiti for
your folder.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthq
akes/eqarchives/poster/2010/2010
112.Php
USGS Earthquake map of Haiti:
http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2010/e
q_100112_rja6/neic_rja6_l.html
You will find multiple panels:
•
epicentral area
•
plate tectonic environment,
earthquake history
•
generalized seismic hazard
Contents
36
Japan and Haiti:
Key data activity (1)
Action for students:
1. Based on the Japan exemplar slides and
your research, draw a table comparing
Japan and Haiti with key information
including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
GDP per capita
Population
Median population age
Population under the age of 15
High or low-income population
Population density
Urban population %
Maternal mortality rate
(deaths / 100,000 live births)
World ranking
Birth rate / 1,000 population
Death rate / 1,000 population
Availability of health care
Literacy, total population, %
2. Population pyramid: which age groups
contain the largest number of people in
Japan and Haiti? Does the population
age structure diagram resemble a
pyramid (A or B) or an inverted pyramid?
Source: http://geographyfieldwork.com/PopulationStructure.htm
Contents
37
Japan and Haiti:
Key data activity(2)
2. In what stage do Japan and Haiti’s birth rate, death rate and availability of
health care place them on the demographic transition model?
Source: GCSE Bitesize population change and structure:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/population/population_change_structure_rev4.shtml
Contents
38
.
PART II: FOUR SECTIONS
Contents
39
Tectonic activity, seismicity and
tectonics
PART II - SECTION ONE
TECTONIC HAZARDS AND CAUSES
Contents
40
Section One
Tectonic hazards and causes
This section focuses briefly on the patterns
and processes of earthquakes and
volcanic hazards* and how they
are managed.
Contents
41
Section One
Tectonic hazards and causes
What are tectonic hazards and their causes?
Learning outcome
This section will guide you in identifying, examining and
understanding the:
• Range of tectonic hazards and their causes;
• Different profiles of tectonic hazards;
• Link between tectonic hazards and plate tectonics;
• Variation of tectonic hazards with the type of plate
margin.
Contents
42
Event, hazard
or disaster?
Action for students: Discuss what makes an event a hazard or disaster
based on information in the images only.
1
2
3
4
5
Sources:
1 Water http://img.ehowcdn.com/article-new/ehow/images/a06/f9/r2/natural-hazards-disaster-management-800x800.jpg
2 Internal displacement:
http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpGraphics)/B303AB7D46DFD5ECC12578D2005B9C8E/$file/nd-01-big.jpg
3 Haiti earthquake: http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=haiti+earthquake&view=detail&id=CE5C433C1836E995E6DF12FF00689F877DA2DF3F&FORM=IDFRIR
4 Guatemala’s Volcano of Fire:
http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanic+eruption+diasaster&view=detail&id=D62AC286BAA6030CE1A08A8E7D78AFC1DB0139E2&FORM=IDFRIR
5 Fault Rupture source: http://www.teara.govt.nz/files/p4411gns.jpg
Contents
43
Event, hazard
or disaster definitions
•
What is a natural event in an uninhabited place becomes a hazard in a
populated one.
•
A hazard is natural or human-made event that adversely affects human life,
property or activity. A hazard involves people.
•
“A disaster is an occurrence disrupting the normal conditions of
existence and causing a level of suffering that exceeds the capacity of
adjustment of the affected community.”(WHO/EHA 2002). There is no
universally agreed numerical threshold for designating a hazard as a
disaster. A matter of scale, a disaster is a lot bigger than a natural hazard.
•
Capacity: A combination of all the strengths and resources available within
a community, society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or the
effects of a disaster.
Source: UN/ISDR, Words Into Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework, Switzerland, 2007
Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions; http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf
Contents
44
Perspectives on the Haiti
earthquake experience
Action for students:
1.
View and interact with the video on the experience of the Haiti earthquake from the perspective
of a survivor, an aid worker and a journalist:
http://www.insidedisaster.com/experience/Main.html
2.
Based on the video make a mind map about why the Haiti earthquake lead to disaster. See
sample mind map for guidance.
Source: http://www.mind-mapping.co.uk/make-mind-map.htm
Contents
45
What is a
tectonic event?
• A tectonic event is a physical occurrence resulting
from the movement or deformation of the Earth’s crust.
• Tectonic events are predominantly earthquakes or
volcanic eruptions.
• Tectonic events become tectonic hazards when they
have the potential to cause loss of life and damage to
property.
• Not all tectonic events are hazardous.
Contents
46
Tectonic hazards
Tectonic activity cause a very large range of hazard events. These
are associated with the processes of earth movement and
volcanism, and they are classified into primary and secondary hazards.
Primary tectonic hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
pyroclastic flow, ash fall and volcanic gases.
Secondary tectonic hazards include tsunamis, landslides and
lahars. A tsunami is a secondary hazard, because the flooding
is caused by the earthquake at sea. Tsunamis like the Asian
Tsunami (2004) are rare.
Contents
47
What is an earthquake
and tsunami?
Action for students:
1.
Watch BBC News, “Animated Guide –
Earthquakes” and print out the PDF nonanimated version. Retain in your research folder,
as you will use it later:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7533950.stm
2.
Watch National Geographic,
“Earthquake 101”:
http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education
/media/earthquakes-101/?ar_a=1&ar_r=999
Source:http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural
_hazards/earthquakes_rev1.shtml
3.
Review BBC GCSE Bitesize, “What
causes a Tsunami?”:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize
/geography/natural_hazards/tsunamis_rev
1.shtml
And Japan Tsunami footage with
explanations
http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/news/e
nvironment-news/japan-tsunami-2011-vin/
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1,
Tectonic activity and hazards
Contents
48
Defining earthquakes
Earthquakes occur along fault lines and major plates lines.
The main shock in a cluster is the one with the largest magnitude.
Foreshocks occur before the main shock. Not all main shocks
have foreshocks.
The main shock is always followed by aftershocks, which are smaller than
the main shock and can continue for weeks, months or years.
Each earthquake can provide new information:
• If a subsequent event is larger than the one deemed a main shock, it can be
redefined as a foreshock, for example, Tohoku, Japan (2011).
• Similarly, an aftershock may sometimes be reclassified as a foreshock.
Contents
49
Foreshocks, Main
shocks and aftershocks sequence
• .
Tohoku, Japan (2011) Map:
11 March - magnitude 9.0 main shock off
Tohoku followed by 166 aftershocks of
magnitude 5.5 and greater until May 20.
Aftershocks follow a statistically
predictable manner. In common with
almost all of the largest earthquakes,
this one is on a subduction zone.
Warmer colour for more recent events
Larger symbol for greater quake
magnitude.
Action for students: Record in your
glossary what is meant by a
subduction zone . Explain why it
causes 5000 earthquakes a year in
Japan (one or more a day).
Source: USGS
Contents
50
Seismic waves
Action for students:
1.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Correctly label the image:
Surface waves
Rayleigh wave
Love wave
Body waves
P waves
S waves
Elliptical motion
2.
•
•
Answer the questions about Love, P, S and Surface waves:
Which type of seismic wave travels fastest?
Which type causes rock particles to move together and apart in the same direction?
3.
In order to determine how far from a seismograph station an earthquake occurred, one needs to look at the difference
between:
Seismic waves and elliptical motion
P & S waves
S & Love waves
P & love waves
•
•
•
•
4.
•
•
•
•
Which one does not control the level of shaking:
Distance
Weather
Local Soils
Magnitude
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=S wave
Contents
51
Measuring shaking
Seismologists use a seismograph: an instrument that registers
the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates caused by seismic
waves and produces seismograms such as this USGS one:
A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line
A long wiggly line (seismic wave) that wiggles a lot
denotes a large earthquake; a short one that doesn’t
wiggle a lot a small one. The length of the wiggle
depends on the size of the fault and the size of the
wiggle by the amount of slip.
At least three seismographs are needed to triangulate
the location of an earthquake. Measurements are on the
logarithmic Richter scale from 1 – 10 with decimals.
Further info
On seismic monitors - Incorporated Research
Institution for Seismology (IRIS):
http://www.iris.edu/dms/seismon.htm
On seismicity maps - USGS:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/s
eismicity_maps/world.pdf
On seismograms – USGS:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/helicorder
s/about.php
on seismographs and Richter scales:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental
/earth/geophysics/question142.htm
Source: http://www.online-education.net/articles/science/earthquake-studies.html
USGS http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/eqscience.php
52
.
125 Global Seismographic stations, multi-use facilities, spaced worldwide, collect
data for scientific research, earthquake hazard mitigation, tsunami warning,
education and the international monitoring system for the Comprehensive Nuclear
Test-Ban Treaty. Source: IRIS
Contents
53
World map of the
threat of earthquake shaking
Global Seismic Hazard Program
http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/gshap/
Dark red = large earthquakes most likely
Contents
54
USGS Shake maps
Japan
Haiti
• .
Mercalli scale measures how much damage
is caused by earthquakes based on
observations.
55
Map of case study
countries and plate margins
Action for students:
Draw an arrow to Japan, China, Haiti, Turkey and Italy on the map below and add in the
plate margins.
Source: Worldatlas
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56
Primary and secondary
effects of earthquakes
Earthquakes effects: primary and secondary
Primary effects
happen immediately and occur as a direct result of the ground shaking like buildings collapsing.
Ground shaking
Ground shaking is most direct effect with cracks in land and structures, falling masonry and / or
collapse.
animation: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/simulations/
Secondary effects
occur as a result of the primary effects, for example, fires due to ruptured gas mains.
Ground displacement
may not be life threatening; however, it impacts on buildings, bridges and roads.
Landslides
are movements of masses of rock or debris down a slope. Slope failure can be triggered by, for
example, earth tremors. Photo: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=landslide
Liquefaction
occurs when the shaking of silts, sands and gravels causes them to lose their load bearing
capacity. Buildings and other structures, may thus sink into the ground.
Liquefaction Hazard Map: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/qmap/
Liquefaction photo:http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/49488655AFEE6C258525773000766AF5-Full_Report.pdf
Tsunamis
are ocean waves with extremely long wavelengths, generated by earthquake tremors.
Graph: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=tsunami
Contents
57
Plate tectonics
How do earthquakes occur?
Action for students:
1. Use the pdf hard copy of the earthquake animation and
add in additional information from the following sources:
•
•
•
Animated version of the “Earth’s Tectonic Plates”,
http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/earths-tectonic-plates/?ar_a=1
Dr Iain Stewart explains how plate tectonics cause earthquakes:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/natural_disasters/earthquake#p00gtskq
British Geological Survey: http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk and
US Geological Survey (USGS): http://www.earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/plate_tectonics/rift_man.php
2.
Discuss these additions with a partner and compare.
Critique your partner’s additions and ask them to critique yours.
3.
In light of this critique amend your explanation and retain
the document for revision and exam preparation.
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58
Tectonic plates
Action for students:
1.
Find a map of the global distribution of tectonic plates identify
the convergent (destructive or collision), divergent and
transform (conservative or transcurrent) plate margins.
2.
Write a description of each type of margin. Include an example
of each type of margin and also explain a collision plate
margin with an example.
3.
Compare and contrast the typical tectonic hazards experienced
at one convergent and one divergent plate margin.
4.
Research the two types of crust which make up the plates.
Contents
59
GPS: measuring
plate motion
Global Positioning system (GPS) is one of various
technologies used for studying earthquakes. Receivers placed
along fault lines measures movements of the Earth's crust with
a precision of one millimetre per year.
The length of the
indicates the extent of the movement.
This GPS Slip model of Tohoku,
Japan (2011) was produced with
vertical GPS data.
Source: UNAVCO 2000
Further info on GPS and plate motion calculators for your records:
Source:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/worl
d/japan/031111_M9.0prelim_geodetic_slip.p
hp
http://www.unavco.org/community_science/science-support/crustal_motion/dxdt/model.html
Contents
60
.
PART II – SECTION TWO
TECTONIC HAZARDS:
PHYSICAL IMPACTS
Contents
61
Section Two
Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
This section introduces impacts and then
focuses on the physical impacts, such as
damage and destruction to homes
and infrastructure and change
to the landscape.
Port au Prince after the earthquake
Photo by Julie Remy/MSF
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62
Section Two
Tectonic hazards: physical impacts
What impact does tectonic activity have on
landscapes and why does this impact vary?
Learning outcome
By the end of this section, you should be
aware of the effects of earthquakes on the
landscape.*
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63
Haiti before and after
the earthquake
Juvenat: August 3, 2009
Further info on Haiti before 2010 in Appendix
Juvenat: February 13, 2010
Source:
http://gfdrr.org/docs/Haiti_MultiHazard_RiskAssessment_Report_EN.pdf
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64
Geological records
• Historic records of earthquakes can be
incomplete and some countries have longer
records than others.
• Where there are no written records of
earthquakes geological and soil maps can
be used to identify past earthquake activity.
• The geological record when understood can
enable areas of high risk to be mapped.
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65
Event Profiles
Event profiles can be drawn for any event and help illustrate the great
variation in the nature of tectonic hazards. They are a common way
to compare and contrast different hazards. The typical earthquake
and volcanic profiles tend to differ most in terms of spatial predictability
and frequency.
This profile compares factors of
the Asian Tsunami (2004) with
the continuous eruption of
Kilauea on Hawaii since 1983.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4 Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards
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66
Event profiles
Action for students:
1. Refer to the Exemplar slide for
Japan, Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami (2011)
and construct one for Haiti Earthquake (2010). Keep in mind
factors of an event profile: magnitude, speed of onset, duration,
areal extent, spatial predictability and frequency.
2.
Research and construct event profiles as presented on the
previous slide for the Haiti (2010) and Tohoku, Japan (2011).
Further info:
For a comprehensive presentation by a geophysicist on Haiti
and Japan earthquakes click:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_WGi4mjVqbY
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67
Tectonic impacts
Tectonic hazards can be complex with
multiple effects and impacts. Impacts can
be physical, social or economic.
Impacts can be:
• Direct or indirect,
• Short or long-term,
• Tangible or intangible,
• Negative or positive.
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68
Factors affecting an
earthquake: Mind map exercise
Action for students:
1. Draw a mind map of physical factors affecting an
earthquake.
2. Draw another for human factors.
3. Compare your mind map with that of a partner,do you
need to make amendments, do they need to make
amendments
4. Complete your map for your folder by referring to the
following slides.
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69
Physical factors
affecting the impact of a tectonic event
Physical Factors:
• Distance from epicentre
• Richter Scale / Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):
the higher on the scale, the more potentially devastating
• Duration of the hazard
• Scale of the hazard
• Frequency of the hazard
• Magnitude of the hazard
• Time of day
• Time of year and climate
• Geography of the area, accessibility
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70
Human factors affecting
the impact of a tectonic event
Human factors:
• Social, political and economic conditions / level of development.
• Population density: rural or urban area
• Frequency and severity of hazards affecting the area
• Experience from previous hazards in the area
• Methods of coping with hazards
• Accuracy in predicting the hazards
• Effectiveness and response of hazard warning and evacuation
procedures
• Speed and efficiency of local, national and international emergency
response teams and long-term reconstruction and development
services
• Coordination and perception of the services
• Presence of other humanitarian crisis
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Severity of impacts
The hazard and the capacity of people affected to prepare for and resist
it determine the extent of the damage. Damage to the environment
such as deforestation can make their impact worse. So the severity of
impacts depends on both:
• Physical factors (attributes of nature) such as the magnitude of the
event.
• Human factors determining human vulnerability to natural hazards
such as population density.
Action for students:
Discuss whether the impacts on places, people and power of volcanic
hazards can be positive and negative, but for earthquakes only
negative.
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72
Are impacts always
negative?
Some economists have argued that a natural disasters can be a
brutal, but good stimulus for an economy by:
• pushing short-term growth;
• Helping conflict resolution and community development;
• building up-to-date infrastructure and technology in place of
outdated ones (in with the new, out with the old); and
• focusing international attention and resources on the country.
Further info: article on “how disasters help”:
http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2008/07/06/how_disasters_help/?page=full
Contents
73
Fault activity
Action for students:
1. Label the faults as Dip slip, Strike-slip and Thrust. Mark with arrows to indicate
vertical or horizontal movement.
.
.1000
.
. 100
.
10
.
. 1
. 5.5
Kilometers
2. Study the graph. Do bigger faults lead to
smaller or bigger earthquakes?
6
6.5
7
Magnitude
7.5
8
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/?topicID=53&topic=Prediction
74
Effects of earthquakes
on landscapes
Action for students:
1.
Research faults and draw diagrams of dip slip faults (normal, reverse and
thrust), strike slip faults (left or right-lateral) and oblique slip faults. You can
refer to http://www.exploratorium.edu/faultline/basics/faults.html
Example diagram
3.
Be clear about which faults are common at divergent plate margins and which
occur at convergent plate margins.
4.
Explain how rift valleys form and give an example.
Remember: a clear, simple diagram is worth a thousand words.
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1, Tectonic activity and hazards
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75
Hazard Trends
Why live in tectonically active areas?
Prediction
PART II – SECTION THREE
TECTONIC HAZARDS:
HUMAN IMPACTS
Contents
76
Section Three
Tectonic hazards: human impacts
This section is organised around risks, vulnerability
and patterns of human impacts – social and economic.
• Social impacts refer to trauma and the disruption of
everyday life and communities.
• Economic impacts can be damage to factories and
commercial properties and disrupted transport
networks.
Together with physical impacts, they determine how
places, people and power are affected.
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77
Section Three
Tectonic hazard: human impacts
What impacts do tectonic hazards have on people
and how do these impacts vary?
Learning outcome
By the end of this section, you should:
• Understand some of the reasons why people live in
tectonically active areas
• Know the range of hazards associated with different types of
tectonic activity*
• Be familiar with the specific impacts of a range of tectonic
hazards*
• Be aware of trends in the frequency and impacts of tectonic
hazards.
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78
Hazard Trends
PART II – SECTION THREE
TECTONIC HAZARDS:
HUMAN IMPACTS
Contents
79
Geophysical and
hydro-meteorological graph activity
Action for students:
.
Look at the two graphs and mark
them as appropriate to show:
• Rising trend of hurricanes, typhoons,
tornadoes and such
• Fluctuating trend
• Rapidly rising trend of flood events
• Increasingly widespread drought
affecting millions of people
• Rare but devastating
• Fluctuating trend usually linked to other
hazards
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Geophysical versus
meteorological hazards and trends
Geophysical hazard is formed by
tectonic/geological processes, for
example, earthquakes, volcanoes and
tsunamis. The number of geophysical
hazards has stayed fairly constant.
Hydro-meteorological hazard is
formed by hydrological (floods) and
atmospheric (storms and droughts)
processes. They make up most of the
natural hazard events and have
increased in number.
.
EARTHQUAKES
Magnitude
Class
Number
M≥8
Great
1
M≥7
Major
15
M≥6
Large
134
M≥5
Moderate
1,319
M≥4
Small
~13,000
Source: WHO/EHA 2002, Disasters & Emergency definitions
http://www.who.int/disasters/repo/7656.pdf;
USGS Earthquake statistics and Earthquakes and seismicity
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Natural hazard trends
•
Whilst better awareness, preparedness and technology has reduced the
number of deaths due to natural hazards, the number and frequency of
natural hazards and the number of affected people has gone up.
•
Whilst our capacity to deal with natural hazards and disasters has
increased, socio-demographic, economic and technological factors has
increased vulnerability further.
•
The destructiveness of earthquakes has increased, because populations
keep rising and more and more people have moved into earthquake risk
zones - especially where earthquakes have been infrequent but violent.
•
Buildings and infrastructure are increasingly expensive and vulnerable, and
many people live in housing not been built to withstand earthquakes.
•
As opposed to other natural disasters, earthquakes occur without warning
and even moderate ones tend to affect a widespread area.
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Disaster hotspots
The impact of natural hazards differs
between and within countries
and regions and countries. Asia
is the most affected by
natural hazards the
Philippines, Japan, India,
Bangladesh, China, Indonesia
most hazard-prone.
Identifying a hot spot can have
major implications for development
and investment planning,
A hazard hotspot is an area of
disaster preparedness and
multiple hazard zones. In large, rapidly
loss prevention. Yet, long lists of
growing urban areas in hazard prone areas,
the potential for hazards to turn into disasters priorities can be more immediate than
risk management.
is great.
Source: White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction:
a development concern, (DFID, 2004) 3.
83
Are Haiti and Japan
disaster hotspots?
Action for students:
Using the disaster websites such as:
• Prevention web for risk profile and disaster statistics:
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/risk.php?iso=hti
• Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, CRED
(http://www.cred.be), for frequency, economic and human impact by disaster
type and region: http://cred.be/sites/default/files/PressConference2010.pdf
1.
List recent natural disasters for Japan and Haiti and discuss each countries
capacity to deal with them. Consider location, tectonics, hurricane tracks, typhoons,
tsunamis, population, economic development and the natural and built environment.
2.
Compare risk rankings for Japan and Haiti.
3.
Compare economic and human losses by disaster for Japan and Haiti. Try to
explain why 2011 was the costliest year ever for natural disasters with Tohoku,
Japan (2011) accounting for 55% of the total US$380 billion economic losses.
Contents
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Why live in tectonically active areas?
PART II – SECTION THREE
TECTONIC HAZARDS:
HUMAN IMPACTS
Contents
85
Why do people live
in tectonically active areas?
Action for students:
1.
Reflect on your own the reasons why people live in tectonically active
areas, jot down your ideas.
2.
Give examples, why do people continue to live in California, Japan or
Haiti?
3.
Consider: level of economic development, awareness of risks, risks versus
benefits, past history of tectonic activity (magnitude, frequency, impact and
dates).
4.
Discuss with a partner their reasons and yours.
5.
Join with another pair, discuss and record all the ideas why people live in
tectonically active areas.
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Why risk living in
a hazardous area?
There are far more people living
in potentially hazardous area
than you might expect.
Choice e.g.
Economic
opportunities like
tourism, farming,
mining,
geothermal power
Ignorance of the
risks and / or
underestimation of
risk
Living in
areas of
tectonic
risk?
Inertia; always
lived there, roots
Nowhere else to go /
lack of alternatives
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1 Tectonic Activity and Hazards
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Many people may not have experienced earthquakes
Blue and mauve and yellow dotted lines show Haiti’s last earthquakes 57 and 64 years
before the 2010 one. Risk is a probability: without living memory, people may
underestimate the risk and consider preparing and planning less a priority.
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88
Dregg Disaster Model
Dregg’s model (Earthquakes Venn
Diagram) shows the overlap of natural
hazard and human vulnerability.
The greater the scale of a earth
process or event and the more
vulnerable and exposed the people,
the greater the scale of the natural
hazards or disaster.
“Disasters do not just happen – they result
from failures of development which
increase vulnerability to hazard events.”
e.g., rapid urban growth leading to
increased exposure to landslides,
earthquakes or fire.” (White, Philip et al 2004, 3)
Risk = Vulnerability x Hazard
Source: Edexcel Unit 4, Option 1- tectonic activity and hazards.
White, Philip, et al, Disaster risk reduction: a development concern,
DFID, 2004, 3.
Digby et al, Geography for Edexcel, Oxford University Press.
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World Risk Index
Action for students:
Looking at the Dregg’s diagram and the world risk index, what
places Haiti and Japan at risk?
The world risk index
launched by the UN
Institute in Bonn helps
define the interaction
between natural hazard
and vulnerability.
Source: http://ihrrblog.org/2011/09/26/2011-un-world-risk-index/
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Disaster Risk
Equation
People can be affected by natural disasters anywhere.
However, the risk of disaster grows as global hazards
and people’s vulnerability increases, while their capacity to
cope decreases. The Disaster Risk Formula measures
hazard vulnerability:
Factors that decrease risk include:
• Effective warning and preparedness,
• Better planning and building practices,
• Development and insurance.
Source: FAO, http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae080e/ae080e01.htm
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Vulnerability:
class-quake
Vulnerability:
• describes how susceptible a population or parts of a population are to the
damage of hazards, notably “the characteristics of a person or group
and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope
with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard.”(Wisner,
Ben et al 2005, 11)
• is determined by processes in the natural environment and by places,
people and power.
• tends to increase the lower the country’s economic development and sociopolitical stability because risks and vulnerability make the impact of
natural hazards patterns worse.
Class-quake:
The Guatemala earthquake 1976 made headlines as a ‘class-quake’, as
it predominately affected the poor, excluded and vulnerable in slums
while the urban middle and upper classes remained relatively unaffected.
Source: Wisner, Ben, et al, At Risk: Natural hazards, peoples vulnerability and disasters, 2nd ed, (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005) 11.
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Vulnerability and
economic development
In less developed countries:
•
A greater proportion of the population tends to be exposed to risk given population
growth, land pressure and urbanisation. Moreover, the poorest tend to be
disproportionately affected, often because they have migrated to hazard zones to
search for work and may live in sub-standard and cramped conditions that collapse
and crush them, the biggest cause of death.
•
The financial resources, technical capacity, level of education and ability to cope
with hazardous events also tend to be lower.
•
The economies also tend to be driven by growth and tend to be less resilient in
dealing with the disruption of the event.
•
There are also more likely to be other humanitarian crises as well as other issues
like weak governance and infrastructure.
Source: http://www.chinapost.com.tw/business/asia/other/2012/08/16/351184/Asia-economies.htm
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/1070_drrscopingstudy.pdf
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Impact and
Economic Development
The graph illustrates how the Kobe Earthquake (1995) was a huge economic disaster,
while the Boxing Day Tsunami (2004) lead to far more deaths (like the Haiti 2010 earthquake).
Natural Disaster Cost by Year
Sources:
World Bank (2006). Hazards of Nature, Risks to Development. An IEG Evaluation of World, Bank Assistance for Natural Disasters.
The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Humanitarian Response to Natural Disasters: A synthesis of – Norad www.norad.no/en/tools-and-publications/.../107610?_...true...
Graph by Robert Simmon, based on data courtesy EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database (www.em-dat.net) Université Catholique
de Louvain—Brussels, Belgium
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Specific hazard
impacts: Human costs
The costs of tectonic hazards can be classified broadly as human or economic.
Human costs include primary, secondary and tertiary casualties. Over half of
disaster deaths occur in LEDCs even though only 11% of people exposed to
hazards live there.
Primary casualties: People killed or injured by an earthquake or volcano.
Casualties tend to be much higher in less developed countries because of:
• Limited preparedness,
• Less effective warning systems,
• Less effective search and rescue services.
Secondary casualties: People who survive initially but are injured or die because
of insufficient resources and lack of emergency medical care especially in
less developed countries
Tertiary casualties: People with pre-existing medical conditions aggravated by
the hazard event. This includes people who become ill, or die as a result of the
post-disaster environment.
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Specific hazard
impacts: Economic costs
There are two types of economic costs:
• Direct costs: the immediate costs of repairing
damage caused by the event. In the case of
earthquakes this will often include demolishing
buildings fractured by the shock waves and rebuilding
from scratch.
• Indirect costs: loss of earnings caused by disruption
to working life. Increasingly, major natural hazards are
causing secondary technological and industrial
accidents and emergencies for example, the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in Japan.
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Exemplar table for your
research: hazard impacts over time
Action for students: Draw a table to organise and capture your research for
each case study using the prompts in the table.
Impacts
Physical
Social
Economic
Short term
Notable examples of natural and humanbuilt landscape destroyed. Fires due to
gas pipe explosions and electrical
damage? Landslides and flooding?
Numbers of killed and
injured, noting those in
essential service
professionals like doctors
and policemen injured. Lack
of food and health supplies?
Damage or loss of homes,
transport, communications,
health care facilities, energy
and water supply systems?
Note tangible losses due to the direct impact
of property damage like destruction to shops
and trade damaged or disrupted. Also,
indirect losses resulting from social economic
disruption, trade impacted by loss of
communication, transport and water and
energy supply infrastructure. Looting?
Long term
Intangible losses like the destruction of
important natural and human landmarks
and fertile lands.
Put here public health
problems like disease (e.g.,
cholera due to contaminated
water and lack of hygiene).
Numbers of homeless and
displaced people needing
shelter and rehousing.
Information on indirect
impacts like stress and
psychological damage.
Are settlements and shops being rebuilt and,
if so, to higher standards? Settlements
moved? People rehoused? Is there any
positive impact in the form of aid,
reconstruction and grants?
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