Transcript Document

AL AKHAWAYN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES
1. Communication Theory and Scholarship
Lecture by Prof. Dr. Mohammed Ibahrine
based on
Littlejohn’s Theories of Human Communication
Structure of the Lecture
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•
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1. What is Communication Theory
2. Why Study Communication Theory
3. The Academic Study of Communication
4. Defining Communication
5. The Process of Inquiry in Communication
 5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
 5.2 Types of Scholarship
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Structure of the Lecture
•
6. Communication Theory as a Field
 6.1 The Rhetorical Tradition
 6.2 The Semiotic Tradition
 6.3 The Phenomenological Tradition
 6.4 The Cybernetic Tradition
 6.5 The Socio-psychological Tradition
 6.6 The Socio-cultural Tradition
 6.7 The Critical Tradition
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Structure of the Lecture
•
•
•
7. Levels of Communication
8. Developing Core Communication Theories
9. The Intellectual Structure of the Communication
Field
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1. What is Communication Theory
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•
•
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Any attempt to explain or represent an
experience is a theory
Everybody uses theories
We cannot live without them
Theories guide our understandings and
actions
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1. What is Communication Theory
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The term communication theory can be used to
designate the collective wisdom found in the
entire body of theories related to communication
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2. Why Study Communication Theory?
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Communication is one of the most persuasive and complex
aspects of human life
•
Because communication is so vital to our lives, surely it
deserves our careful attention
•
Everybody tries to make sense of their own experience
•
By developing an understanding of a variety of theories of
communication
•
We interpret events in more flexible and useful ways
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2. Why Study Communication Theory?
•
The study of communication theory will help
students see things they never saw before
•
This widening of perception, or unhitching of
blinders, helps us transcend habits and become
increasingly adaptable and flexible
•
Theories, then, provide a set of useful tools for
seeing new and useful things
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3. The Academic Study of Communication
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Although communication has been studied since antiquity, it
became an especially important topic in the twentieth first century
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This revolutionary development is largely caused by the rise of
communication technologies such as
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

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
•
Radio
Television
Satellite
The Internet
The Mobile
Communication has assumed immense importance in our time
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3. The Academic Study of Communication
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Several developments led to this interest in communication

The political influence of public messages spurred considerable
research on propaganda and public opinion

Much of the research in sociology in the 1930s investigated the
ways in which communication affects individuals and
communities

Popular research topics in social psychology included the
effects of movies on children, propaganda, persuasion and
group dynamics
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3. The Academic Study of Communication
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Some areas of special interest were the use of radio in
education
The teaching of basic communication skills like

Public speaking

Group discussion
Much of the early research was driven by the
desire of people in business to know more
about communication for marketing purposes
Advertisement
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3. The Academic Study of Communication
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Several developments led to this interest in
communication

After World War II, persuasion and decision
making in groups were central concerns, not
only among researchers but in society in
general

After World War II, then, communication
studies became quite important
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3. The Academic Study of Communication
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The approaches to the study of communication
took different turns in Europe and the United
States

In United States, researchers tended to study
communication quantitatively to try to achieve
objectivity

European scholars were strongly influenced
more by historical, cultural and critical
interests
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3. The Academic Study of Communication
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The diversity of work in communication theory reflects the
complexity of communication itself
•
Each theory looks at the process from a different angle
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Regardless of their original academic homes, scholars have
formed the new field called communication
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The young communication field is now producing fresh
theories
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4. Defining Communication
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Communication is difficult to define
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Scholars have made many attempts to define
communication but establishing a single
definition has proved impossible and may not be
very fruitful
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Frank Dance found three points of “critical
conceptual differentiation” that form the basic
dimension of communication
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4. Defining Communication
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1. The first dimension is level of observation, or
abstraction
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Some definitions are broad and inclusive; others
are restrictive and exclusive
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4. Defining Communication
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2. The second distinction is intentionality
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Some definitions include only purposeful
message sending and receiving
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Others do not impose this limitation
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4. Defining Communication
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3. The third dimension is normative judgment
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Some definition include a statement of success or
accuracy
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Other definitions do not contain such implicit
judgments
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5. The Process of Inquiry in Communication
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Inquiry is the systematic study of experience that
leads to understanding and knowledge
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People engage in inquiry when they attempt to
find out about something in an orderly way
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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All inquiry involves three stages:
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The first stage of inquiry is asking questions
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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Questions of definition call for concepts as
answers, seeking to clarify what is
observed:

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What is it?
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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Questions of fact ask about properties and
relations in what is observed:
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what does it consist of ?
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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Questions of value probe aesthetic, pragmatic, and
ethical qualities of the observed:
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
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Is it beautiful?
It is effective?
Is it good?
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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All inquiry involves three stages:
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The second stage of inquiry is observation
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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All inquiry involves three stages:
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Methods of observation vary significantly from one
tradition to another
 Some scholars observe by examining records and
artifacts
 Others by personal involvement
 Others by using instruments and controlled
experiment
 Others by interviewing people
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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All inquiry involves three stages:
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The third stage of inquiry is constructing answers
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The scholar attempts
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To define
To describe
To explain
To make judgment
This stage is usually referred to as theory
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5.1 A Basic Model of Inquiry
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People often think of the stages of inquiry as linear, occurring one
step at a time: first questions, then observations, and finally
answers
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Inquiry does not proceed in this fashion
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Observations often stimulate new questions
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Theories are challenged by both observations and questions
•
Inquiry is more like running around a circle than walking in a
straight line
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
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Different types of inquiry ask different questions, use
different methods of observation and lead to different kinds
of theory
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Methods of inquiry can be grouped into three broad forms
of scholarship:



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Scientific
Humanistic
Social Scientific
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
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Science often is associated with objectivity
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If by objectivity, we mean suspension of values, science
definitely is not objective
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If by objectivity we mean standardization, science is indeed
objective
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Standardization is important in science because scientists
assume that the world has observable form
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5.2 A Types of Scholarship
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They view their task as seeing the world as it is
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The world sits in wait of discovery
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The goal of science is to observe and explain the world as
accurately as possible
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
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Whereas science is associated with objectivity, the
humanities are associated with subjected
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Science aims to standardize observation
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The humanities seek creative individuality
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Most humanist are more interested in individual cases than
generalized theory
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
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Whereas science is an “out there” activity
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The humanities stress the “in here”
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Science focus on the discovering world
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The humanities focus on the discovering person
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Science seeks consensus
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The humanities seek alternative interpretations
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5.2 A Types of Scholarship
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The Special Case of the Social Sciences
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A third form of scholarship is the social sciences
•
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Many social scientist see it as an extension of natural science
Social science is a world apart
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It includes elements of both science and the humanities but
is different from both
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
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To understand human behavior, scholar must observe it
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Interpreting may be complicated by the fact that the object of
observation, the human subject, is itself an active, knowing being
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The central philosophical question in social sciences is
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Can “scientific” explanation of human behavior take place without
consideration of “humanistic” knowledge of the observed person
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
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Communication as a Social Science
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Traditionally, humanistic theories of communication have
been referred to as rhetorical theory and scientific theories
as communication theories
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5.2 Types of Scholarship
Types of Scholarship
Scientific Scholarship
science is associated with
objectivity,
Science aims to standardize
observation
Science out there” activity
Focus on the discovering
world
Science seeks consensus
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The Special Case of the
Social Sciences
Many social scientist see it as
an extension of natural
science
It includes elements of both
science and the humanities
but is different from both
Social science is a world
apart
Humanistic Scholarship
the humanities are associated with
subjected
The humanities seek creative
individuality
Most humanist are more
interested in individual cases than
generalized theory
stress the “in here”
Focus on the discovering person
The humanities seek alternative
interpretations
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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We have two requirements for communication theory as field
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1. A common understanding of similarities and difference among
theories
We need a metamodel, which means a model of models
•
•
•
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2. We need a new definition of the term theory
Theory should be regarded as a statement or argument in favor of
a particular approach
Theories are a form of a discourse
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Theories are a discourse about discourse or metadiscourse
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Theories are special forms of communication
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Theories constitute an experience of communication
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Different theories are different ways of “talking about”
communication, each form has its powers and limits
•
For unity in the field, we need too acknowledge the constitutive
power of theories and find a consensual way in which to
understand what various theories are designed for
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Craig describes seven standpoints, traditions or
theories within the field:
 1. Rhetorical
 2. Semiotic
 3. Phenomenological
 4. Cybernetic
 5. Socio-psychological
 6. Socio-cultural
 7. Critical
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Rhetorical tradition
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Theories in this tradition see communication as a
practical art
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Communicators such as
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Speakers
Media producers
Writers
perceive a problem or challenge that needs to be
dealt with through carefully designed messages
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Rhetorical tradition
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Logical and emotional appeals are typically
featured in rhetorical theories
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It relies on a sense that words are powerful
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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The Semiotic Tradition
This tradition focuses on signs and symbols
•
It argues in a language that includes terms such
as sign, symbols, meaning, referent, code and
understanding
•
Semiotic theories often lie in opposition to
theories suggesting that words have correct
meanings, that signs stand for objects, or that
language is neutral
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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The phenomenological tradition
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This tradition concentrates on personal experience, including how
individuals experiences one another
•
Communication is seen as a sharing of personal experience
through dialogue
•
In this tradition, you will hear a discourse that includes terms such
as experience, self, dialogue, genuine and openness
•
It is appealing as a theoretical approach when it points out the
need for human contact, respect, acknowledgment of differences
and common ground
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Cybernetic
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Communication is viewed in this tradition
primarily as information process
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It honors a vocabulary of senders and receivers,
information, feedback and systems
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Socio-psychological
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This tradition concentrates on the aspects of communication that
include expression, interaction and influence
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It addresses problems and challenges in which outcomes need to
be manipulated
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This discourse accents behavior, variables, effects, personalities
traits and perception
•
This tradition stands most in opposition to claims that people are
rational, that individuals know what they think, and that
perception is a clear route to seeing what is real
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Socio-cultural
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This genre holds social order as its centerpiece and sees
communication as the glue of society
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The problems and challenges it addresses include conflict,
alienation and the failure to coordinate
•
Socio-cultural scholars eschew arguments in favor of
individual power, unitary self and separation of the human
interaction from social structure
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6. Communication Theory as a Field
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Critical tradition
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The critical tradition tends to see communication as a social
arrangement of power and oppression
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It responds to problems of ideology, power and domination
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Critical discourse includes such terms as ideology, dialectic,
consciousness raising, resistance and emancipation
•
It is an appealing approach to theory in situations that
include the self-perpetuation of power, the values of
freedom and equality
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7. Levels of Communication
•
Handbooks, textbooks and college curricula are often
divided into sections corresponding to these levels:
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Interpersonal communication

Group communication

Organizational communication

Mass Communication
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7. Levels of Communication
 Interpersonal communication
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Interpersonal communication deals with
communication between people, usually face-toface, private setting
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7. Levels of Communication
 Group communication
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Group communication relates to the interaction of
people in small groups usually in decisionmaking settings
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7. Levels of Communication
 Organizational communication
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Organizational communication occurs in large
corporative networks and includes virtually all
aspects of both interpersonal and group
communication
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7. Levels of Communication
 Mass Communication
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Mass Communication deals with public
communication, usually mediated
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8. Developing Core Communication Theories
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Some theories explain particular levels of
communication, whereas others focus on general
concepts and processes common to all
communication
•
The following list illustrates the types of elements
included in core communication theories:





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1. Development of message
2. interpretation and the generation of meaning
3. message structure
4. Inter-actional dynamics
5. institutional and social dynamics
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8. Developing Core Communication Theories
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No single theory can address all
these elements
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9. The Intellectual Structure of the Communication Field
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•
•
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To capture the unity and diversity of the
communication field , John Powers developed a
model that accommodates all of the categories
The model of the intellectual structure of the filed:
1. The content and form of the message
2. Communicators as



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Individuals
Participants in social relationship
Members of cultural communities
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9. The Intellectual Structure of the Communication Field
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3. Levels of communicators, including
 Public
 Small group
 Interpersonal
•
4. Contexts and situations in which
communication occurs
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Structure of the Lecture
•
7. How to evaluate a Communication Theory
 7.1 Theoretical Scope
 7.2 Appropriateness
 7.3 Heuristic Value
 7.4 Validity
 7.5 Parsimony
 7.6 Openness
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Thesis of today’s lecture:
•
Why is this topic considered so important

Almost all university communication programs include at
least one course in communication theory

They are indispensable in academic life

They allow us to transform information into knowledge

Theories are the foundation of every discipline

They help us to codify what we know
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Thesis of today’s lecture:

Theories also focus our attention on important variables and
relationships

Theories are like maps
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1. The Nature of Theory
•
•
What is theory ?
The book’s definition of theory is broad
» “An organized set of concepts and
explanations about a phenomenon”
•
All theories are abstractions
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1. The Nature of Theory
•
They always reduce experience to a set of categories
•
A theory focuses on certain things and ignores others
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No single theory will ever reveal the whole of truth
•
Theories are constructions
•
A theory is a way of seeing and thinking about the world
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2. Basic Elements of Theory
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The most basic element of a theory is its CONCEPTS or
CATEGORIES
•
A goal of theory is to present a set of labeled concepts
•
Theorists identify concepts by symbols and set of terms
becomes an integral part of the theory
•
Terms, concepts and definitions tell us what the theorist is
looking at and what is considered
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2. Basic Elements of Theory
•
What does taxonomies mean?
•
Taxonomies are theories that stop at the concept
level, providing only a list of categories without
explaining how they relate to one another
•
Because taxonomies do not explain, many
scholars believe that they are not really theories
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2. Basic Elements of Theory
•
The best theories go beyond concepts to provide
explanations
•
Statements about how the variables relate to one
another –showing how concepts are connected
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2. Basic Elements of Theory
•
There are many types of explanations, but two of the most
common are CAUSAL and PRACTICAL
•
CAUSAL explanation connects events as causal relationships in
which one variable is seen as an outcome or result of the other
•
PRACTICAL explanation explains actions as goal related in which
action is designed to achieve a future state
•
CAUSAL explanation explains outcomes as responses
•
PRACTICAL explanation sees action as controllable and strategic
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2. Basic Elements of Theory
•
In CAUSAL explanation, the consequent event is determined
by some antecedent event
•
In PRACTICAL explanation outcome are made to happen by
actions that are chosen
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
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Social science approach to theory is based on four
processes:




•
1. Developing question
2. Forming hypotheses
3. Testing Hypotheses
4. Formulating theory
This approach is known as the hypotheticodeductive method
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
•
1. Definition of Hypothesis:
•
An hypothesis is a well-formed guess about a relationship
between variables
•
It is based on intuition, experiences or most desirably on
research
•
An hypothesis must be testable in such way that potential
rejection is possible
•
Hypothesis may be falsifiable
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
•
2. Definition of Operationism/Operational
Definition
•
Is the most precise possible definition because it
tells you how the concept is to be observed
•
Operationlism relies on measurement, or the use
of precise indicators (poverty)
•
Measurement is evaluated in terms of two criteria:
Validity and reliability
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•
3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
Validity is the degree to
which an observation
measures what it is
supposed to measure
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Reliability is the degree
to which the construct
is measured accurately,
and it is most often
estimated by
consistency
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
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3 Control and manipulation
•
If one set of variables is held constant (control)
and another set is systematically varied
(manipulation)
•
The researcher can detect the effect of the
manipulated variables without worrying about
whether other variables had hidden effects
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
•
4 The Covering law
•
The covering law is a theoretical statement of
cause and effect relevant to a particular set of
variables across situation
•
Covering laws also enable the researcher to make
predictions about future events
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
•
Very few social scientists seek covering law
anymore
•
They realize that absolutely universal statements
are unrealistic
•
They are seeking statistical relations among
variables and their “law” are probabilistic
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3. The Traditional Ideal of Theory
•
5 Prediction
•
Prediction is an important outcome of inquiry
because it gives people power over their
environment
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4. An Alternative Paradigm
•
Robyn Penman has outlined five tenets of the alternative
paradigm
 1. Action is voluntary, you can not predict
action/behavior based on outside variables
 2. Knowledge is created socially
 3. Theories are historical, as times change, so too
will theories
 4. Theories affect the reality that are covering
 5. Theories are value laden, They are never
neutral, see Cox:
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5. Theory Development and Change
•
A good theory development is a constant process
of testing and formulating
•
For the traditionalists, this testing is a process of
improving hypothesis about the real word
•
For the alternative-paradigm theorist, it is a
process of fine-tuning interpretative frameworks
for understanding the flow of events
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5. Theory Development and Change
•
Theory development therefore always requires research
•
Research enables the specific investigation of facts
considered significant
•
Theories can be expanded piece by piece by adding new
concepts to the old
•
Thomas Kuhn states that “normal science” is a process of
developing theory with the relative consensus among
scientists on the basic nature of the things being explained
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5. Theory Development and Change
•
In a scientific revolution, two paradigms are pitted against
each other
•
These two paradigms are based on different basic
assumptions
•
Metatheory is a field that attempts to describe and explain
the similarities and differences among theories
•
A metatheory is theory about theories
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5. Theory Development and Change
•
Since the late 1960s, the word paradigm has referred to
a pattern in any scientific discipline
•
In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure used paradigm to
refer to a class of elements with similarities
•
Thomas Kuhn gave this word its contemporary
meaning when he adopted it to refer to the set of
practices that define a scientific discipline during a
particular period of time
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5. Theory Development and Change
•
In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn defines a
scientific paradigm as:
•
What is to be observed and scrutinized
•
The kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed
for answers in relation to this subject
•
How these questions are to be structured
•
How the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted.
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6. Metatheory
•
Issues of Epistemology
•
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge,
or how people know what they claim to know
•
There are four positions on the issue:

1. Mentalism or realism suggest that knowledge arise out of
the sheer power of the human mind to know the truth

2. Empiricism highlights the role of experience

3. Constructivism holds that people create knowledge in
order to function pragmatically in the world and that they
project themselves into what they experience

4. Social Constructivism teaches knowledge is a product of
symbolic interaction within social groups
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6. Metatheory
•
Issues of Epistemology

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1. Mentalism or realism suggest that
knowledge arise out of the sheer power of
the human mind to know the truth
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6. Metatheory
•
Issues of Epistemology

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2. Empiricism states that knowledge arises in
perception
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6. Metatheory
•
Issues of Epistemology

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3. Constructivism holds that people create
knowledge in order to function
pragmatically in the world and that they
project themselves into what they experience
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6. Metatheory
•
Issues of Epistemology

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4. Social Constructivism teaches knowledge is
a product of symbolic interaction within
social groups
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6. Metatheory
•
•
Issues of Epistemology
Is knowledge best conceived in parts or whole?
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
Gestaltist teach that true knowledge consists
of general, indivisible understandings

Analysts believe that knowledge consists of
understanding how parts operate separately
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6. Metatheory
•
Issues of Ontology
•
Ontology is the branch of philosophy that deals
with the nature of being , or more narrowly, the
nature of the things we seek to know
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6. Metatheory
•
•
Issues of Axiology
Axiology is the branch of philosophy studying
values
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7. How to Evaluate A Communication Theory
•
As you encounter theory of communication, you
will need a basis for judging one against another
•
The following list of criteria that can be applied to
the evaluation of many theories
•
Remember that no theory is perfect
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7. How to Evaluate A Communication Theory
•
All have limitations
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
Theoretical Scope

Appropriateness

Heuristic Value

Validity Parsimony

Openness
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7. How to Evaluate A Communication Theory
•
Theoretical Scope

A theory’s scope is its comprehensiveness or inclusiveness

It relies on the principle of generality

The scope of a theory is critical

A theory need not cover a large number of phenomena to be
judged as good
Many fine theories are narrow in coverage

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7. How to Evaluate A Communication Theory
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Appropriateness
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In a way, appropriateness is a kind of logical consistency
between theories and assumptions
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Heuristic Value
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Validity is the truth value of a theory
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Validity as a criterion of theory has three meanings:
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Value, or worth
Correspondence, or fit
Generalizability, the tenets of the theory apply
across situation
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Parsimony
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The test of parsimony involves logical simplicity
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If two theories are equally valid, the one with the
simplest logical explanation is said to be the best
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Openness
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Theories can be judged according to their openness
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This criterion is especially important in the alternative
paradigm
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It means that a theory is open to other possibilities
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