Transcript Urban Land Use

Urban Land Use
Unit 6 Continued
Evolution of American City
 Robert Crumb drawings
 Where did the world’s first city arise?
 Same places as hearths of early agriculture (sedentary lifestyles)
 Urbanism spread very slowly
 In Europe, Athens & Rome grew rapidly during Classical Period; “dark ages”
interrupted this
 Feudal system: dominated most of Europe, lacked diversity & active trade
Ancient Rome & Athens
 Both Mediterranean countries
 Very different terrains
 Greek city-states separated by hilly countryside and all
were near the water
 Rome was inland far fewer hills
 Greek art adorned utilitarian objects; Roman art
adorned the living spaces
 Both economies were based on agriculture
 Both employed social class systems
 Governments:
 Originally, kings ruled Athens, then an oligarchy (rule by
the few), and then democracy (voting by the citizens)
Fall of Rome
 Kings also originally governed Rome. Then established a
mixed Republican form of government, combining
elements of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy; rule by
one returned to Rome, new form of Roman emperors
Major cities outside of Europe during
the Middle Ages
 Middle East: BAGHDAD in Iraq,
CAIRO in Egypt, and CÓRDOBA in
Spain
 Far East: Beijing, Nanjing & Hangzhou
in China,
 Indian subcontinent (southeast Asia):
Singapore, Phnom Penh in Cambodia,
Kediri in Indonesia, Kathmandu in
Nepal
 Mesoamerica: Mexico City
 South America: Cusco in Peru
Renaissance Period: 1350-1650
 European culture reborn
 Cities became vibrant centers for learning
 Urban growth accelerated dramatically after Hundred
Years War (ended 1453)
 Dublin, Madrid, Prague, Vienna, Amsterdam, Barcelona
emerged as leading cities
 Colonial Period began during this time-19th century
 “God, glory, gold”
 Aztec city of Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City)
richest in world at time (Cortez destroyed with disease)
Pre-Industrial Cities
 Shared characteristics:
 rural settlements surrounding urban space provided agricultural
products/food to urban dwellers, who provided economic functions
 Served as trade centers & gateways to foreign lands
 After fall of Roman Empire they developed decline in development
 Colonial Cities-built & developed by colonizers
 European drive for land fueled construction
 Aim was to export raw resources back to mother country
 “Urban-Banana”
 By 1500s most cities located in trade centers from London to Tokyo
 Formed because of site & situation factors (physical geo & trade
routes)
 Shops markets, homes, & gov’t jumbled in urban space; economic
segregation, elite lived closer to city-center
18th Century
 Urbanism exploded on global scale
 Industrial Revolution in England spread across Western Europe &
North America
 Centers of manufacturing saw population growth
 Social Problems:
 Immigrants (cultural diversity) in Gateway Cities (almost all
located on coasts)
 Great Migration led to Race riots
Industrialization & City Structure
 1800 only 5% of world’s pop. living cities
 1950 16% in cities
 2010 50.5% in cities
 75+% of people in developed countries live in cities; 40% of people
in LDCs live in cities
 England: 24% urban in 1800, 99% urban by 1999
 Second agricultural revolution- more workers moved to cities &
improved food supplies
 By early 1900s most “great cities” were American or European:
Manchester, Chicago, Barcelona
 Shock cities: urban areas experiencing infrastructure challenges to
due massive & rapid urbanization
 Slums, hazardous pollution, deadly fires, urban prostitution,
exploitation of children
Culture Influencing Urban Form
 Urban geography incredibly diverse
 Medieval cities densely packed with narrow buildings & winding streets,
ornate church is city center
 Islamic cities mosques at center, walls guarding perimeter, open-air
markets, courtyards & dead-end streets
 Latin American, Asia, & African cities cultural monuments, colonial
buildings, factories, radiate out like spoke of wheel from central business
district
 Asia & Africa less developed than Latin America
Strained Infrastructure
 Important trend in modern urbanization is it diffusion to less developed parts
of world & uneven spread
 Highest rates of urbanization occurring in LDCs
 Urbanization in LDCs focuses on 1-2 major cities rather than spread
throughout landscape
 Large migration of young adults create high numbers of opportunityseekers in already strained places
 Squatter settlements- unable to find housing, makeshift, unsafe housing is
contstructed on others’ lands
Urban Systems
 Urban places interact with each other and are interdependent, not
independent, & exist in spider-web of interacting parts
 Geographers analyze spatial distribution of cities and ask why it is the way it
is
Central Place Theory
 Walter Christaller
 Created in response to von Thunen’s rural land use
theory
 Looked to explain & predict pattern of urban spaces
 Ideal model based on assumptions of flat land
surface, uniformly distributed rural population, equal
transportation methods, & evolutionary movement
towards city growth
 Main ideas:
 Central places are urban centers providing services to
surrounding rural people
 Threshold is minimum number of people needed to fuel
a function’s existence in a central place (more
unique=$$$); donut shop small threshold, hospital large
threshold
 Range of good or service is max distance person is
willing to travel to obtain that service
 Spatial competition implies that central places compete
with each other for customers
Central Place Theory (cont.)
 Hexagonal pattern essential to model; von Thunen’s rural model was concentric rings
 Vary in degree of thresholds and economic reach
 Urban hierarchy
 If pop. is evenly dist. there will be hierarchy of evenly spread central places to serve that
population
 A few cities at the top level and more cities on each lower level
 Position of city determined by types of central place functions it provides: the higher position
in the hierarchy the higher the pop. being served
 Cities’ positions can change
 Top tier: Chicago & New York
 Second tier: Miami & St. Louis
 Rank-Size Rule & Centrality
 There is relationship between pop. size and its position in urban hierarchy
 In the U.S. the urban system roughly conforms to rank-size rule prediction but some have
disproportionately large cities known as primate cities
 Buenos Aires is nearly 10 times the size of second-largest city, Rosario
 Sometimes when a city dominates economic political and cultural functions more than expected
based on pop. Size it has high degree of centrality
 Managua’s population accounts for 30% of total pop. But controls nearly 40% of country’s economy
World & Megacities
World Cities
 AKA global cities
 Powerful cities that control a disproportionately high level of the world’s
economic, political, and cultural activities
 Can be considered if they dominate different areas of global affairs
 Amsterdam- global financial center
 Milan-powerful influence over fashion & design
Borchert’s Model of Urban Evolution
 1960s Samuel Borchert studied cities in U.S. & linked historical changes
 Defined 4 classifications of cities based on transportation technology that
dominated the era when city hit its initial growth
 Stage 1: cities hit growth spurt during “sail-wagon era” 1790-1830, mostly near
ports & waterways
 Stage 2: “iron horse cities” born & grew around rivers & canals during early
industrial years 1830-1870
 Stage 3: “steel-rail epoch” cities, 1870-1920 hit growth spurt during Industrial
Revolution & b/c of steel industry; particularly around Great Lakes
 Stage 4: cities born around 1920 and linked to car & air travel; saw growth of
new more influential cities in the South
Comparing North American Cities
 All models posses a Central Business District
(CBD)-original core of city’s economy; degree
of influence varies
Concentric Zone Model
 1920s by E.W. Burgess-first to explain/predict
urban growth
 Based on growth in Chicago
 Can be viewed from above as rings on tree
 Invasion and succession/succession
migration- new arrivals move to inner rings then
push the people already present farther out;
zone in transition “skid-row”
 Peak land value intersection- CBD; highest real
estate prices, land values decrease in all
directions outward
 Bid-rent curve- predicts land prices & pop.
density decline farther from CBD
Bid-Rent Curve
Comparing North American Cities
Sector Land Use Model
 1930s Homer Hoyt discovered twist on concentric
zone pattern
 Zones of growth based on transportation & linear
features (roads/canals) not just zones around CBD
 Similar land uses and socioeconomic groups clumped
in sectors radiating outwards along transport routes
 Industrial activities followed rail lines, lower
socioeconomic housing followed public transport,
visitor services along major highways
Comparing North American Cities
Multiple-Nuclei Model
 Late 1040s Chauncy Harris & Edward Ullman
 Growth occurred independently around several major focal points rather
than 1 CBD
 Only loosely connected to CBD; reduced dominance of CBD
 Land use zones occur at once and in chunks
Comparing North American Cities
 The Urban Realms Model
 1960s James Vance
 Explained urban regions that were mixed-use,
suburban downtowns with relative
independence from CBD; automobile played
major role
 Nuclei evolved into independently functioning
“urban realms”
All models can be combined to understand a
particular city’s urban growth pattern
Latin American Cities
 Larry Ford & Earnest Griffin; focused on
regions colonized by Spain
 Most medieval cities laid out in jumbles but
1400s saw rebirth of Renaissance urban
design
 CBD was more important because very few
suburbs existed
 Wealth decreases as move outward from
CBD
 Perifericos- squatter settlements
 Zone of in situ- region transitioning towards
maturity; development is mix of middleincome & lower-income families
 Zone of maturity- services & infrastructural
development
Counterurbanization & Exurbs
 Counterurbanization-increase in rural pop. that result from out-migration
residents
 1950s saw rise in exurbs (extra-urban areas), wealthier communities that
grew just outside of suburbs, traveled by parkways and commuter rails
 Telecommuting is modern form; only have to commute info
Urban Sprawl
 Diffusion of urban land use and lifestyle into formerly nonurban, often agricultural lands
 Led to the growth of “edge cities”-self-sufficient, urban
villages that often develop at highway exits
 Suburbs and edge cities often fight for independence
from metropolitan government for own mini gov’ts
 If inner-city is mostly occupied by lower socio-economic
tax base then amount of taxes it can collect is limited
 Uneven development- urban development not spread
equally among city’s areas
 Uneven dev. often caused by cumulative causation,
money flows into areas of greatest profit where
development has already been focused rather than to
places of greatest need
Ghettoization & Gentrification
 Ghettos-The growing areas of concentrated poverty
 Urban ghettos originally mostly immigrants (Irish, Italians, Germans); since 1950s
African American, Hispanic, & Asian ghettos have grown
 Real estate developers and banks contributed to growth of urban ghettos &
sometimes profited from them:
 Blockbusting- when agents use racism to “bust up” block by bringing minority family into
predominately white neighborhood then profiting from turn over
 Racial steering- agents intentionally or unintentionally steer people to buy a home in
neighborhood based on race contributing to patterns
 Redlining- banks refuse to give loans to certain minority-occupied neighborhoods that
were “redlined”
 Gentrification- older, urban zones are “rediscovered & renovated” by people
who move back to inner-city from suburban fringes
 Brings money into inner urban areas
 Many see as great solution to recharging city’s inner core
 Critics see it as uneven development; new businesses come in to cater to rich
gentrifiers, pushes urban poor from their neighborhoods and divides urban
landscape
Other Urban Trends
 Many European cities work to limit development to particular area by installing
a green belt
 North American cities have difficult time setting boundaries b/c they attract
investors who want to develop these lands
 Portland, Oregon has effectively instituted boundary to contain urban sprawl
 Neo-Urbanism- movement to bring together trends in healthy living, sustainable
growth, and urban development
 Planned communities; master-planned housing, walkable pathways, recreational
facilities, security features
 Health experts encouraging developers to include pedestrian walkways to reduce
heart disease due to reliance on transportation
 Festival setting such as large waterfront parks’ or recreational areas with marketplace,
food, art, etc. ex: Boston’s Faneuil Hall
Functional Character of Cities
 Basic v. Non-basic jobs
 Basic brings employment into urban place and gives city primary function; ex:
Flint, MI automobile manufacturing, exported and sent money into Flint’s
economy; Chapel Hill, NC dominated by UNC function exports info and
knowledge and brings money in
 Non-basic are jobs that shift money within the city, not outside the city;
responsible for maintaining city’s infrastructure; ex: teachers, janitors, fire
departments, dry cleaners
 Most cities have same types of non-basic jobs, basic jobs gives city’s sense of
identity and unique economy (Mobile as a port city)
 North America was once dominated by manufacturing and industrial activities,
now more focused on display & consumption; experience “boom and bust”
cycles
Unit 7
Industrialization & Economic Development
Spread of Economics
 Economy- system of production, consumption, & distribution in a region
 Alfred Weber’s Least Cost Theory, early 20th century
 Predict and explain where factories would choose & grow
 Commodification of Labor- factory owners looked at human labor as
commodities (objects for trade)
 By 1920s U.S. automobile factories changed production process into Fordist
or Ford method
 Built out rather than up
 Based on division of labor
Agglomeration & Deglomeration
 Agglomeration- occurs when industries clump together in same geographic
space
 Factories in same areas can share costs of resources (electrical lines, roads,
pollution control)
 Agglomeration economies occur when positive effects of agglomeration result
in lower prices for consumers
 Localization economies- category of agglomeration econ when firms in same industry
benefit, sharing skilled labor talents
 Urbanization economies- category of aggl. econ when large pop. of urban areas
benefit from clustering b/c they share infrastructural elements (transport systems)
 Deglomeration- “unclumping” of factories b/c of negative effects & higher
costs associated with industrial overcrowding
 Occurs when region becomes too clustered and negatively affects area through
pollution, traffic congestions, or strained resources/labor
High-Tech Corridor & Technopoles
 High-tech corridor- place where technology & computer industries
agglomerate
 California’s Silicon Valley
 Technopole- another name for region of high-tech agglomeration formed
by similar high-tech industries looking for shared area to benefit from shared
resources
 Backwash effects- negative consequences of agglomeration that happen
when other areas suffer out-migration (“brain-drain”) of people moving to
another hot spot of industry
Economic Development Patterns
 Development- process of improving material condition of people through
growth & diffusion of technology & knowledge
 Both MDCs & LDCs have challenges: MDCs face maintaining economic growth,
LDCs face improving economic condition
 Not based on just how much money the country has but also health care &
education
 Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- value of total outputs of goods of a country,
over a year
 GDP per capita is GDP divided by population
 Gross National Product (GNP)- includes all goods & services owned and
produced by a country overseas
 Purchasing Power Parity(PPP)- measurement tool for calculating exchange rates
to buy an equal amount of goods
Dependency Theory
• Argues that LDCs are locked into a
cycle of underdevelopment by global
economic system that supports
unequal structure
• Argues political and economic
relations among countries limit ability
of LDCs to modernize/develop b/c
MDCs are dependent on LDCs to
remain at the top of world economy
• Many countries are poor today b/c of
colonization of European nation that
extracted valuables but didn’t
develop lasting infrastructures
Improving Economic Development

Self-sufficiency Approach- to reduce development gap, LDCs must build economies more rapidly
 Pushes under-developed countries to proved for their own people, independent of foreign
economies
 Country should spread investments equally across all regions
 Rural areas must develop alongside urban areas
 Favors a closed economic state: imports are limited & heavily taxed
 Critics argue can stifle competition; leads to less efficiency & less innovation

International Trade (export-oriented) approach- pushes underdeveloped countries to identify what it
can offer to the world and build investment on that industry

Eventually country will develop and advantage over rest of world in that good/service

Comparative advantage- when a country is better at producing good/service than other countries

Structural Adjustments- improving LDCs by involving supranational organizations (World Bank &
International Monetary Funds) that regulate trade & money supply
 Requirements are attached to loans that force countries to make economic changes in order to
use the loans
 Often force privatization (selling publicly-operated industries to market-driven corporations); can
cause hardships

Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)- run by charities & private organizations to provide supplies,
resources, & money; ex: Doctor’s Without Borders