Transcript The Economics of Gender

Program Magister
Kependudukan & Ketenagakerjaan
Universitas Indonesia
Ekonomi Kependudukan,
13 Desember 2011
 The
origin of gender difference
 The economics of gender
 Blinkers in economic theory
 Gender difference in labor market
 Example of gender bias policies
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 Sex:

perbedaan secara biologis
Laki-laki (male) vs perempuan (female)
 Gender:
Characteristics attributed that are
socially (and psychologically) associated with
being female and male


Feminine
Masculine
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Sumber:
http://www.flyfishingdevon.
co.uk/salmon/year3/psy364
gender-naturenurture/psy364gendernaturenurture.htm#nature_nurture
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Sumber: http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/year3/psy364gender-naturenurture/psy364gender-nature-nurture.htm#nature_nurture
7
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 Integrating
gender concept into economic
theory (e.g. time allocation)
 Interaksi agen ekonomi dalam keluarga,
perusahaan, pasar, berbeda antara laki-laki
dan perempuan
 What perspective: economic approach to
gender differences
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 Prinsip


ekonomi (does it apply to everyone?):
Decision making under constraints (scarcity)
Humans are asumed to be rational, imply:


Consistent: act the same way in identical situation
Foresight: consider long run implications and indirect
effects on their behavior
 Debate
over sexual division of labor:
biologically or culturally determined (social
construction)
 Economic principle: max own utilityaltruism? (family utility?); father’s choice vs
mother’s choice (mis: susu anak vs rokok)
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Macroeconomic policy is gender blind:
 Pursue aggregate goals, blind to differential
impacts on all individuals (by gender, sector,
location, race, religion, culture, etc)
 The omission of gender concerns:


Generates policy with inefficient macro-level
outcomes
Give unpredicted micro-level consequences for
women, children and families
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 Globalization:
macro policy assign primary
importance to: international trade (exportled development strategy), economics
liberalisation, operation of free markets
 All economic agents are affected by these
macroeconomic policies; but: Women &
children are vulnerable to these policies.
 Old days: Women didn’t enter the market,
rely on cash povided by men (?)
 Resources within subsistence economy, then
become more subject to macro policy
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 Basic
needs (health and education) formerly
met within the household, move into public
sector met by the government
 Basic needs became more monetize,
sophisticated – expensive
 Facts:


In many developing countries, under externally
imposed structural adjustment and stabilisation
regime, the instruments of macroeconomic policy
reduces access of women and children to basic
goods and services;
Contoh: traktor, sophisticated machinery, etc.
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1.
Boundary Blinkers: Invalid assumption
about the nature & importance of boundary
between the household and market


Microeconomic theory concerns with
behaviour in consumption & production
activities that are constrained by scarcity
resources: Only activities that have market or
exchange value (!)
Boundary blinkers, failure to correctly
specified the “base population” for the
measurement of economic activity.
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 Consequences:

Movements of productive activities from
household to market are intepreted as an
increase in production because the basis for
comparison is not the total universe of economic
activity (only the monetised ones)
 Clearly


National accounting system
Measurement of economic growth
 Taking

seen in:
account this problem:
New household economics (NHE): time allocation
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‘…women initially took on
time-consuming, labor-intensive tasks in
the home to contribute their fair share to
the domestic economy in lieu of monetary
contributions. But subsequently, when
they began to contribute financially, they
were still held responsible for these tasks,
either by providing the services
themselves or by contributing additional
money to buy substitutes. This additional
assessment is the gender tax.
(H. E. Baber, 1999)
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2. Measurement Blinkers: Not recognizing
contribution of household production and
women in the household to social and
economic welfare


Contribution of women: under-enumerated,
especially their participation in the labor force
and their role in biological reproduction & care
(and household production)
Simple microeconomic theory asume work or not
decision is only about allocation of time between
work or leisure (valid mostly for men?)
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3. The Specification Problem: Problem arise
from the failure of conventional economics
to identify & take into account the
opportunity cost of women’s time.



Nonmarket activities: treated as costless &
ignored, considered as unpriced resources.
Conventional economics are restricted on
monetary transactions & its principal actors
The key: to use opportunity cost of
nonmonetised activities as women’s domestic
activities, create human capital (health and
education and quality of future generation)
therefore contribute to economic production
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4. The Efficiency Problem: Due to gender bias,
the resource allocation is not effective
Effect of gender bias:
 Acts as subsidy: unpaid household inputs are
unpaid the true value (remember gender
tax!)
 Women’s unpaid family labor subsidized
economic production generally
 Unequal access on control of resources.
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Effect of gender bias (ctd.):
 Inability to move between jobs, and to
search higher returns, lack the incentives for
HH to provide complementary physical
capital or technology to raise women’s labor
productivity
 Value of women’s reproductive role
undervalued
 Lower lifetime earnings, lead to no incentive
to undertake human capital investment
among women
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5. Contextual Blinkers: Is blinked to the
economic significance of social and
institutional context in which economic
activity takes place & neglecting the role of :
families, households, social and cultural
norms, conventions and institutions.
 Family and household considered as moral
economy: individual decision to max utility;
 Values, attitudes, social conventions,
behavioral norms and cultural mores are
overlooked
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 This
blinker made women to be ignored by
social and institutions.
 Contextual blinkers: blind to the fact that
social conventions are other sources of
allocative inefficiency, restricting free
movement of female resources to their most
productive use.
 By increasing social and psychological cost
and reducing the benefit of market work for
women.
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Rata-rata Upah Menurut Pendidikan & Jenis Kelamin, 2007
No
Pendidikan
1
>SD
2
SMP
3
SMA
4
Akademi/Diploma
5
Universitas
Rata-rata
Laki-laki (Rp) Perempuan (Rp)
Jumlah
1,421,217
1,078,925
1,401,267
1,549,586
1,059,262
1,424,618
2,342,967
1,806,685
2,196,896
3,275,466
2,537,911
2,915,758
2,496,516
1,664,763
2,193,644
958,972
715,414
88,393
Sumber: BPS, Sakernas 2007, dikutip dari Fa’atin (2010)
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Rata-rata Upah Menurut Jenis Pekerjaan & Jenis Kelamin, 2006
No
Jenis Pekerjaan Utama
Laki-laki (Rp)
Perempuan
(Rp)
1
Tenaga Profesional
1,342,653
1,020,413
2
Tenaga Kepemimpinan
2,442,855
1,731,417
3
Tenaga Tata Usaha
1,239,736
1,039,248
4
Tenaga Usaha Penjualan
472,697
553,359
5
Tenaga Usaha Jasa
774,889
376,806
6
Tenaga Usaha Pertanian
416,401
215,148
7
Tenaga Produksi
749,498
504,935
8
Lainnya
1,515,132
1,197,637
Rata-rata
1,119,233
829,870
Sumber: BPS, Sakernas 2006, dikutip dari Fa’atin (2010)
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Angka Pengangguran Terbuka Menurut Jenis Kelamin,
2004-2008
Jenis Kelamin
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Laki-laki
8,1
9,3
8,5
8,1
7,6
Perempuan
12,9
14,7
13,4
10,8
9,7
Total
9,9
11,2
10,3
9,1
8,4
Sumber: BPS, dikutip dari Fa’atin (2010)
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02/12/2011
Source:
US Census Bureau,
Census 2000 Special
Equal Employment
Opportunity (EEO)
Tabulation for Rhode
island, cited from
http://www.dlt.ri.gov/l
mi/pdf/gender.pdf
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CONTOH
KEBIJAKAN
DAN
DAMPAKNYA
PADA PERAN
EKONOMI
PEREMPUAN
Sumber:
Dikutip dari
Zulminarni
(2001)
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 Poverty


Unconditional Cash Transfer (Bantuan Langsung
Tunai/BLT) vs
Conditional Cash Transfer (Program Keluarga
Harapan/PKH)
 Fiscal

allevation:
stimulus programs:
Labor creation through infrastructure investment
Employment
Urban
Rural
Female
Male
Total
Share
Male
Female
Male
Economy wide
25.4%
15.6%
36.9%
22.1% *62.3%
Construction
46.9%
1.6%
50.8%
0.8% *97.7%
Female
*37.7%
Total
100.0%
**100.1
*2.4%
%
Sumber: DySAM output cf. Chatani and Ernst (2011), (*mistakes found
corrected; ** due to number rounding up)
Gender biased taxation:
 Direct tax



Lower rates for (married) men (with families or
dependants)
Joint income: higher rates for lower income
earner
Tax exemption benefits men as they are usually
who run business, house owners, share holders
 Indirect


tax (VAT tax)
Women tend to buy commodities related to
health, education, nutrition compared to men
Contoh Indonesia: Konsumsi rokok vs susu anak
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Gender Based Taxation (GBT):
 Direct tax



Lower tax rate for women (due to the more
elastic supply of labor and more substitutable
market work for household work)
Higher tax for men (less substitutable of work for
for household work)
With assumption of marriage is universal, higher
marginal tax for men is optimal (Alesina, Ichino,
Karabarbounis, 2010)
 Indirect

tax
Adjusted for the gender bias purchase behavior?
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 Bias
jender tampak dalam perilaku ekonomi
dalam rumah tangga maupun pasar tenaker
 Kebijakan makro bisa ‘buta jender’
 Perspektif jender memperkaya sudut
pandang dalam memahami dan menganalisis
masalah dan juga membantu dalam
menelurkan kebijakan yang tepat
Lalu…Apakah Anda setuju bahwa bias jender
(termasuk juga bias sektoral, bias wilayah,
bias urban, bias SARA) harus dikoreksi oleh
pemerintah?
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